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leaching  of 

Play 

WILBUR  P.  BOWEN, 

M.S. 

Professor  of  Physical  Education 

Michigan  State  Normal  College,  Ypsilanti 

THE  F.  A.  BASSETTE  CO. 

Springfield,  Mass. 

3  ?  3  3  iT 

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113-7 
Contents 

] 

PAGE 

Preface 

7 

Chapter  One   . 

The  Meaning  of  Play 

9 

Chapter  Two 

.      Why  Teach  Play 

18 

Chapter  Three 

How  Age  and  Sex  Influence  Play 

26 

Chapter  Four 

Kinds  of  Play 

32 

Chapter  Five 

Individual  Movement  Plays 

40 

Chapter  Six     . 

Story  Plays  and  Rhythm  Plays 

U 

Chapter  Seven 

Contests  Between  Individuals 

48 

Chapter  Eight 

Contests  Between  Groups 

oo 

Chapter  Nine — Plays     In 

termediate     Between    Contests    and 

Games 

60 

Chapter  Ten   . 

.    Goal  Games 

63 

Chapter  Eleven 

Tag  Games 

67 

Chapter  Twelve 

Baseball  Games 

73 

Chapter  Thirteen 

Tennis  Games 

80 

Chapter  Fourteen 

Basketball  Games 

89 

Chapter  Fifteen 

Hockey  Games 

93 

Chapter  Sixteen 

Football  Games 

99 

Chapter  Seventeen 

Games  of  Personal  Combat 

109 

References  on  Play  Activi 

ties    ...... 

110 

Index 

111 

Preface 


ANYONE  who  writes  another  book  on  ])lay  when  there  are 
already  so  many  good  ones  on  the  market  should  be  ready  to 
show  good  reasons.     The  books  now  in  print  on  the  subject 
belong  to  two  classes:    (1)  books  of  plays  selected  by  some  teacher 
to  meet  certain  conditions  and  certain  grades  of  pupils,  and  (!2)  col- 
lections of  plays  intended  to  be  quite  exhaustive  and  arranged  like 
an  encyclopaedia.    As  a  text-book  for  classes  of  students  in  a  normal 
school,  neither  of  these  kinds  of  books  meets  the  need  well.     Such 
students  are  not  preparing  for  any  particular  grade  nor  for  any  par- 
ticular locality  or  system  of  schools,  but  are  being  prei)ared  in  a 
general  way  for  the  task  of  teaching  as  it  may  present  itself.     They 
must  be  adaptable  rather  than  familiar  with  any  particular  scheme 
or  grade.     It  is  to  meet  the  needs  of  classes  of  students  preparing  to 
teach,  as  we  find  them  in  Normal  Schools  and  Colleges,  that  this  book  is 
prepared.    It  is  planned  to  give  the  student  an  intelligent  view  of  the 
whole  field  of  play  activities,  especially  those  that  have  been  found  good 
for   educational   purposes,    and   to   make   some   suggestions   on   the 
pedagogy  of  the  subject.     Rather  than  to  make  a  selection  of  plays 
or  to  describe  in  full  all  in  existence,  the  plan  has  been  to  refer  freely 
to  the  best  books  and  so  make  the  student  familiar  with  several  of 
them.     Plays  described  here  are  either  types  representing  groups  or 
games  not  usually  described  so  as  to  be  intelligible  to  beginners. 
This  is  especially  true  of  the  standard  games  of  baseball,   tennis, 
hockey,  football,  etc.,  of  which  many  prospective  teachers  are  almost 
wholly  ignorant  and  which  the  familiar  rule  books  do  not  describe 
clearly.     Reading  a  clear  description  of  such  a  game,  followed  by  a 
chance  to  see  it  played  and  then  a  chance  to  play  it,  is  the  quickest 
way  for  such  students  to  get  the  idea.    It  is  hoped  that  the  book  will 
be  helpful  to  others  who  have  the  same  task  to  perform  that  has 
fallen  to  the  writer.     Suggestions  and  criticisms  will  be  welcomed. 

W.    P.    BOWEN. 

Ypsilanti,  June  28,  1913. 


Chapter  One 

THE  MEANING  OF  PLAY 

Play  has  been  defined  as  "Any  exercise  or  series  of  actions  in-^ 
tended  for  amusement  or  diversion."^*  The  more  we  study  the  ques- 
tion the  more  evident  it  becomes  that  play  is  a  broad  and  general 
term,  including  all  the  activities  usually  known  as  amusements, 
diversions,  pastimes,  recreations,  and  sports,  and  also  a  wide  range 
of  other  activities  in  the  various  realms  of  art.  The  word  is  often 
used  in  a  more  narrow  sense  to  indicate  activities  of  children  in  dis- 
tinction from  those  of  adults,  frivolous  and  useless  activities  from 
those  that  are  serious  and  important,  or  imitative  and  make-believe 
activities  in  contrast  with  those  of  real  life;  Init  it  can  be  readil^v 
shown  that  all  such  narrow  uses  of  the  term  are  inaccurate,  evidently 
resulting  from  a  comprehension  of  only  a  part  of  the  field.  Adults 
play,  as  well  as  children,  whether  they  care  to  admit  it  or  not;  play 
is  often  serious  as  well  occasionally  frivolous;  it  is  usually  of  high 
educative  value;  it  is  by  no  means  limited  to  the  realm  of  make- 
believe.  A  good  way  to  study  the  meaning  of  play  is  to  consider  its 
relation  to  work,  with  which  it  is  naturally  contrasted. 

Play  and  Work. — One  of  the  first  things  to  be  noticed  in  com- 
paring play  and  work  is  that  there  is  no  essential  difference  in  the 
form  or  outward  appearance  of  the  activity.  Whether  a  certain 
activity,  such  for  example  as  reading  a  book  or  rowing  a  boat,  is  pla>- 
or  work  depends  entirely  on  the  mental  attitude  of  the  doer  toward 
the  thing  he  is  doing;-  more  exactly,  on  the  motive  that  impels  him 
to  action.  The  ideas  or  states  of  mind  that  serve  as  the  motives  for 
our  actions  fall  naturally  into  two  groups,  because  they  arise  from 
two  widely  diflFerent  sources.  Ihe  resulting  actions  are  play  or  work, 
according  as  one  or  the  other  class  of  motives  is  in  control. 

The  first  class  of  motives  grows  out  of  the  fact  that  we  have 
wants  and  make  conscious  effort  to  supply  them.  We  want  food, 
shelter,  clothing,  books,  and  a  countless  number  of  other  things;  we 
want  education,  or  ability  to  write  short-hand,  or  the  good-will  of 
our  neighbors,  or  to  see  the  sights  of  a  city  or  those  of  a  mountain 
system;  to  get  the  things  we  want  we  deliberately  do  certain  things. 
We  keep  store,  work  at  a  trade,  care  for  the  sick,  teach,  sew,  study, 
play  ball, — primarily  as  a  means  of  securing  things  we  want  and 
which  we  can  secure  in  no  other  way.  Such  activity  is  work,  which 
may  be  defined  as  activity  performed  for  the  sake  of  the  residts  it  is 
intended  to  accomplish.    Work  evidently  makes  up  a  large  part  of  the 

*See  corresponding  numbers  in  Bibliography  on  page  17. 

9 


10  THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY 

activities  of  adult   liimian  beings  and  a   nnidi   smaller  part   of  those 
of  children. 

The  second  class  of  motives  grows  out  of  the  fact  that  we  like 
to  do  certain  things  for  the  sake  of  doing  them,  entirely  apart  from 
any  resnlts  they  may  or  may  not  accomplish.  We  like  to  walk,  to 
ride,  to  run  and  jnmp,  to  look  at  .scenery  and  pictures,  to  listen  to 
nuisic,  to  wear  fine  clothes,  to  read  stories,  to  play  games, — just  for 
the  sake  of  the  activity  they  involve.  These  activities  may  do  us 
good  and  may  bring  us  material  results  to  our  liking,  and  if  so,  well 
and  good;  but  the  results  may  have  nothing  to  do  with  our  motive 
in  doing  them.  We  simply  want  to  do  a  certain  thing,  and  that  is 
all  there  is  to  it.  This  is  play,  which  may  be  defined  as  (trtlriti/  per- 
formed for  the  .sake  of  the  satisfaction  received  in  doing  it,  or  simply 
because  of  a  desire  to  do  it. 

The  Play  Impulse. — To  the  average  adult,  who  wants  more 
things  than  he  can  possibly  get  and  who  has  schooled  hini.self  to 
economy  of  effort,  the  idea  of  using  up  energy  just  for  the  sake  of 
doing  it  re(|nires  exj)lanation.  From  his  i)oint  of  view  there  is  no 
sense  in  play.  There  may  be  some  excuse  for  an  occasional  hour 
spent  in  hunting  or  fishing,  for  something  may  be  ])rought  back  that 
will  hclj)  to  supply  the  tal)le;  but  the  excuse  for  i)laying  ball,  skating 
and  dancing  is  not  .so  evident.  There  is  a  strong  iini)ulse  in  every 
one  impelling  him  to  play,  but  a  great  many  intelligent  and  con- 
.scientious  people  try  to  sup|)ress  this  imi)ul.se  in  themselves  and  as 
far  as  possible  in  their  children.  Such  a  condition  of  things  has  led 
to  an  inquiry  into  the  origin  and  cause  of  the  play  impulse. 

The  Schiller-Spencer  Theory.-  The  pliilo.sophers  Schiller  and 
S|)encer  have  offered  an  ex])lanati()n  of  the  origin  of  play  that  is 
known  as  the  "superfluous  energy  theory."  Herbert  S|)encer,'*  who 
has  made  the  comi)lete  statement  of  this  theory,  begins  by  saying 
that  lower  animals  use  all  their  force  in  actions  neces.sary  to  maintain 
.life.  They  are  cea.seles.sly  occupied,  he  says,  in  searching  for  food, 
escaping  from  enemies,  making  shelters,  and  providing  for  their 
young.  Higher  animals,  being  more  highly  organized,  are  more 
efficient,  and  hence  can  meet  the  needs  of  life  and  have  time  and  force 
to  spare.  Natural  cravings  lu-ing  satisfied,  they  rest,  which  enables 
their  organs  to  store  a  surplus  of  vigor,  thus  giving  them  umisual 
readiness  to  act.  The  surplus  energy  tends  to  be  dischargi'd  on  slight 
stimulation  and,  as  a  result,  the  usual  need  of  activity  being  absent, 
there  is  apt  to  be  a  dramatization  or  make-believe  of  the  activity  to 
which  they  are  most  accustomed.  Play  thus  arises  as  a  use  of  suri)lus 
energy,  and  the  forms  of  play  thus  arising  are  apt  to  be  the  same  as 
the  regular  occupations  of  life.  In  ca.se  of  the  young  these  are  usually 
an  imitation  of  the  activities  of  their  elders. 

While  it  is  generally  agreed  that  this  theory  is  an  aid   to  the 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  11 

understanding  of  the  ])lay  impulse  and  helps  to  account  for  varia- 
tions in  the  kind  and  intensity  of  the  play  one  will  choose,  strong 
objections  to  it  as  a  complete  explanation  of  the  origin  and  nature 
of  play  have  been  raised.  It  is  said,  for  example,  that  Mr.  Spencer's 
fundamental  statement  (lower  animals  use  all  their  force  in  actions 
necessary  to  maintain  life)  is  an  unwarranted  assumption.  Suppose 
we  watch  a  school  of  minnows  darting  here  and  there  in  a  clear  pool. 
Are  they  seeking  food  or  safety  or  are  they  simply  following  a  natural 
impulse  to  be  active?  Mr.  Spencer's  assertion  that  they  do  these 
things  to  meet  the  necessities  of  animal  existence  is  seriously  ques- 
tioned. How  do  we  know,  it  is  asked,  that  the  ceaseless  activities 
of  fishes,  butterflies  and  ants  are  not  performed  in  large  part  from 
the  same  kind  of  a  play  impulse  that  impels  the  small  boy  to  run 
and  shout? 

The  Instinct  Theory  of  Groos. — Groos,  a  Swnss  psychologist 
who  has  studied  the  plays  of  men  and  animals  extensively  and  w^rit- 
ten  of  them  in  two  volumes,^  accepts  the  "superfluous  energy"  side 
of  Spencer's  theory  but  rejects  the  "imitation"  side.  He  calls  atten- 
tion to  the  play  of  kittens  with  leaves  and  bits  of  paper  in  the  exact 
manner  of  cats  catching  mice,  even  before  they  have  ever  seen  a  cat 
catch  a  mouse,  as  proof  that  Spencer's  explanation  of  such  play  as 
imitation  is  wrong.  He  gives  several  illustrations  of  the  same  kind 
in  the  plays  of  children  and  animals  and  offers  the  explanation  that 
instead  of  being  imitative  of  adult  activity  it  is  prophetic  of  such 
activity  later  in  life  and  serves  as  a  preparation  for  it.  (According  to 
his  view,  all  creatures  that  play  are  endowed  with  an  instinct  that 
guides  them  in  their  play  so  that  the  play  will  prepare  them  for  the 
more  serious  occupations  of  life.  I  This  is  why  all  kittens  play  alike 
and  all  lambs  play  alike,  but  the  one  species  entirely  unlike  the  other. 
Thus  play  is  nature's  method  of  educating  the  young.  Instead  of 
looking  upon  play  as  nothing  more  than  a  kind  of  diversion  that  the 
young  may  use  to  pass  away  the  time  in  the  unproductive  period  of 
life,  he  considers  play  so  important  that  the  period  of  childhood  and 
youth  is  provided  on  purpose  to  give  it  time  and  opportunity  to 
educate  the  young  and  thus  make  them  capable  of  higher  things. 
It  is  the  play  of  the  child  that  has  civilized  man;  without  youth  and 
play  he  w  ould  be  forever  a  savage. 

The  Evolution  Theory. — This  view  agrees  with  that  of  Groos 
as  regards  the  importance  of  play  and  its  function  as  an  educative 
process,  but  disagrees  with  it  radically  as  regards  the  origin  and 
nature  of  the  play  impulse.  Groos'  view  leads  us  to  look  at  nature 
as  a  kind  and  motherly  fairy  who  lovingly  and  by  a  touch  of  her 
magic  wand  endows  each  child  and  young  animal  with  an  instinct 
which  leads  it  unerringly  to  practice  the  forms  of  play  needed  to 
train  it  for  its  own  future  life.     President  G.  Stanley  Hall,  who  is 


u 


TIIK    TI:A(  I1IN(;    OK    I'LAV 


pci'liaps  llu'  IcndiiiL;  i'\j)()ii('iit  of  the  ('\(»lul ioii  \  icw,  says:'  '"  Tlu' 
\  icw  of  (iroos  that  play  is  practit-e  for  future  adiill  a(li\iti('>  is  \«My 
partial,  superficial,  and  perverse.  It  ijiuores  the  past,  where  lie  the 
keys  to  all  play  activities.  .  .  .  True  play  never  practices  w  hat 
is  racially  new.  It  exercises  many  nidinieutary  functions,  which 
will  abort  l)el'ore  maturity,  hut  which  hxc  thcniscK  •■-«  o*it  in  |>hiy  like 
the  tadpole's  tail,  that  nuisl  he  de\-eloped  and  used  as  a  stimulus  to 
the  growth  of  lejis  which  will  otherwise  never  nuiture.  I  regard  ])lay 
as  the  motor  hal)its  and  spirit  of  the  past  of  the  race  persisting  in 
the  present,  as  rudimentary  functions  akin  to  rudimentary  organs. 
In  play  every  mood  and  movement  is  instinct  with  heredity. 
W(»  rehearse  the  activities  of  our  ancestors,  hack  we  know  not  how 
far.  and  re|)eat  their  life  work,  stage  by  stage.     .  .  The  elements 

and  combinations  oldest  in  the  muscle-history  of  the  race  are  re- 
represented  earliest  in  the  history  of  the  individual,  and  tho.se  later 
follow  in  order.  This  is  why  the  heart  of  youth  goes  out  into  pla\- 
as  into  nothing  eLse,  as  if  in  it  man  remembered  a  lost  paradise. 
Thus  understood,  play  is  the  highest  type  of  exercise  for 
the  young,  most  favorable  for  growth,  aiul  most  self-regulating  in 
both   kind  and  amount." 

The  evolutionists  agree  with  (iroos  in  attaching  coiuparatix'cly 
little  imj)ortance  to  the  imitative  features  of  play  em|)hasized  by 
Spencer,  l)ut  these  have  naturally'  been  given  great  prominence  in 
the  literature  of  the  kindergarten.  Many  disciples  of  Froebel,  influ- 
enced by  their  contact  only  with  the  age  of  ciiildhood  when  dranuitic 
imitation  is  the  most  n()ticeal)le  form  of  activity,  have  an  exaggerated 
idea  of  the  importance  of  this  element  in  play  and  speak  and  write 
as  if  all  forms  of  play  were  essentially  dramatic  in  character.  Even 
such  i)la\'  as  golf,  hockey,  tag,  ami  bax-bali  arc  said  to  be  only 
dramatizations  of  ancient  warfare.  Now  in  a  historical  .sense  the.se 
plays  may  be  remotely  related  to  activities  formerly  used  in  warfare, 
hiA  those  who  play  them  are  not  only  unaware  of  this  relation  but 
are  totally  unconscious  of  any  di-auiatic  meaning  in  them.  Such 
forms  of  i)lay  are  imitative  in  the  sense  that  one  learns  to  pla\  I  hem 
by  seeing  others  play  them;  l)ut  to  consider  them  dramatic,  in  I  he 
sense  that  playing  horse  and  playing  school  are  dramatic,  certainly 
calls  for  a  great  stretch  of  the  imagination.  When  the  actors  in  a 
drama  forget  that  tlicx'  arc  acting  it  ceases  lo  be  dramatic  and  be- 
comes real  life. 

The  theories  of  pla.\  just  >tated  form  a  progressive  series  of 
attempts  to  accouiil  for  I  he  oi-igin  of  the  |)lay  nnp(dse  and  explain 
the  natin-e  of  pla.w  cadi  otic  correcting  and  supi)lcmenting  earlier 
\iews.  The  evolution  theory  is  plaiiil,\  llu-  most  plausible  and  ade- 
(piate  of  the  three,  but  it  has  not  in  iK  i)n>sent  form  met  with  iini- 
\-ersal  acceptance.  The  idea  that  we  ha\c  a  natural  impulse  to  do 
certain  things  and  find  gratification  in  doing  them  because  our 
ancestors  liax'e  done  lliose  \-er\'  tllill^■^  for  so  maiix'  generations  that 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  13 

they  have  become  ingrained  into  the  very  nature  and  structure  of 
our  being,  is  so  reasonable  that  few  will  doubt  its  truth.  If  there  is 
any  reason  better  than  another  why  one  should  like  to  do  a  certain 
thing,  it  is  because  he  is  liy  nature  perfectly  fitted  to  do  it;  if  there 
is  any  reason  why  one  should  be  perfectly  fitted  to  do  a  certain  thing, 
it  is  because  the  powers  and  faculties  that  he  has  inherited  from  his 
ancestors  were  developed  through  ages  of  racial  history  by  the 
practice  of  this  very  thing.  This  explains  in  a  very  satisfactory 
manner  the  origin  of  the  instinct  first  pointed  out  by  Groos  as  the 
guide  to  the  young  in  the  choice  of  play  activities.  The  kitten  chases 
leaves  as  if  they  were  mice  because  it  has  inherited  so  great  an 
aptitude  for  catching  mice,  due  to  the  mouse-hunting  habits  of  pre- 
ceding generations,  that  it  is  the  most  natural  activity  a  kitten  can 
engage  in;  it  has  also  inherited  along  with  this  aptitude  an  impulse 
to  do  it  and  a  sati.sfaction  in  it.  Evolution  may  also  explain  the 
natural  tendency  to  be  active  as  well  as  the  tendency  to  certain 
forms  of  activity.  It  is  not  necessary  to  assi  me  that  all  of  the  light- 
ning-like movements  of  a  trout  in  a  mountain  stream,  or  all  of  the 
almost  imperceptible  movements  of  an  amoeba,  are  performed  to 
secure  food  or  to  escape  enemies.  The  practice  of  like  movements 
by  a  million  generations  of  ancestors  is  sufficient  to  give  an  impulse, 
not  unlike  the  play  impulse  in  higher  forms,  that  accounts  for  a  large 
part  of  such  activities.  By  offering  this  explanation  of  the  impulses 
I  nderlying  play  the  evolutionists  have  furnished  a  great  and  valuable 
contribution  to  the  study  of  the  problem. 

When,  however,  the  advocates  of  this  view  tell  us  that  each 
individual  in  his  play  repeats  the  occupations  of  his  ancestors  in 
their  chronological  order,  each  play  in  turn  disappearing  like  the 
tadpole's  tail  to  make  way  for  the  next  stage,  they  meet  decided 
opposition.  Evidence  is  offered  to  show  that  some  individuals  vary 
from  this  order  considerably,  and  also  to  show  that  many  forms  of 
play  activity  do  not  disappear  in  the  manner  of  the  tadpole's  tail 
at  all,  but  persist  through  life  unless  lost  by  disuse.  Thus  adult 
men  often  play  baseball,  football,  golf,  tennis,  etc.,  with  the  same 
relish  and  from  the  same  impulse  that  is  active  in  the  small  boy. 
More  than  that,  we  start  with  what  is  racially  old  and  by  study  and 
practice  improve  upon  it  until  we  can  do  well  something  racially 
new,  and  then  we  enjoy  that  also  and  make  it  a  part  of  our  play. 
For  example,  we  inherit  an  ability  to  jump  and  an  impulse  to  do  it; 
then  we  devise  a  new  style  of  jump,  the  latest  form  of  the  running 
high  jump,  by  the  use  of  which  one  can  jump  higher  than  was  pos- 
sible by  previously  known  methods.  Having  by  practice  developed 
the  ability  to  perform  this  new  movement,  we  have  the  same  kind  of 
an  impulse  to  do  it  and  the  same  kind  and  degree  of  satisfaction  in 
it  that  we  have  when  we  become  able  to  perform  any  inherited 
action.  The  interest  in  and  enjoyment  of  skillful  performance  of 
the  various  forms  of  track  and  field   athletics,   shell   rowing,   new 


14  TIIK    TEA('EIIN(;    OF    PLAY 

strokes  ill  sw  imiiiiiit!;,  curving  a  hall,  ridiiii!.  a  bicycle,  talkinj;,  writ- 
ing, and  many  other  new  forms  of  nio\enient  show  conclusively  that 
play  does  use  activities  racially  new,  unless  it  he  arbitrarily  assumed 
that  the  word  is  to  he  used  only  to  mean  inherited  forms  of  activity. 
In  fact,  practically  all  of  those  so-called  "accessory"  or  racially-new 
activities  involved  in  art  and  in  modern  industry  hecome,  to  those 
who  have  ac((uired  sj)ecial  skill  in  them,  like  the  "fundamental"  or 
racially-old  activities,  natural  and  enjoyable,  and  so  take  their  place 
beside  the  others  in  the  list  of  play  activities.  And  still  further,  both 
children  and  adults  find  great  pleasure  and  satisfaction  in  the  exer- 
cise of  learning  all  kinds  of  activities  new  to  them,  and  this  is  true 
of  racially-new  as  well  as  racially-old  activities.  It  seems  most 
reasonable  to  conclude,  therefore,  that  while  those  looking  at  play 
from  the  standpoint  of  evolution  are  right  in  gi\ing  inheritance  credit 
for  most  of  our  i)lay  activities,  no  one  is  justific<j  in  clainiing  that 
play  never  uses  anything  racially  new. 

WoKK. — ("hildrcn  June  a  well  kiiowu  a\crsioii  for  work,  and 
they  often  fail  to  outgrow  it.  Work  has  never  been  popular  with 
the  great  mass  of  mankind.  The  words  for  it  in  ])ractically  all  lan- 
guages mean  the  same  as  those  for  pain  and  sufl'ering.  The  Hebrew 
story  of  the  Garden  of  Eden  says  that  work  was  imposed  on  man  as 
a  punishment  for  sin,  and  the  myths  of  other  races  give  it  an  e(iually 
bad  origin.  The  \astly  greater  part  of  the  work  done  in  the  i)ast 
has  been  done  under  compulsion  by  slaves,  soldiers,  women,  and  those 
born  in  the  serving  classes.  K\ery<)ne  who  had  wealth  or  power  tried 
to  get  rid  of  work  and  usually  managed  in  large  measure  to  do  so. 
Even  in  these  days,  when  its  value  and  importance  are  appreciated 
as  never  before,  the  tendency  to  avoid  work  is  among  the  most  evident 
characteristics  of  the  people.  We  have  invented  machinery  to  do 
our  work  for  us  in  ])lacc  of  the  slaves  of  earlier  nations,  and  we  choose 
occupations  largely  with  a  view  to  having  easy  work  and  short  hours. 
So  distasteful  is  it  that  many  still  resort  to  dishonesty,  graft,  gam- 
bling, and  even  robbery  and  nuirdcr  to  obtain  the  i)ro|)er  reward  for 
work  without  doing  it.  Even  college  students,  who  rank  among  the 
most  intelligent  and  conscientious  people  in  the  world,  are  usually- 
pleased  when  a  regular  class  exerci.se  is  omitted,  gladly  losing  a  part 
of  the  education  they  have  paid  for  just  to  escape  the  work  involved 
in  it.  Now  work,  as  we  have  .seen,  involves  identically  the  .same 
activities  as  play,  and  tho.se  who  hate  work  often  play  with  the  great- 
est vim  and  etithusiasm.  This  leads  iis  to  iiuiuire  why  work  should 
be  so  iiiip(»j)iilar  wliilc  play  is  so  popular. 

Fkked(xm. — One  reason  why  play  is  more  pleasurable  than  work 
is  the  greater  freedom  it  affords.  In  tiie  sim|)lc  play  activities  of 
individuals  there  is  ab.solute  freedom  to  vary  the  action  to  suit  the 
whim  (jf  each  passing  moment.     As  soon  as  the  player  is  fatigued 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  15 

by  one  activity,  or  for  any  other  reason  loses  interest  in  it,  he  passes 
freely  to  another.  In  the  more  complex  plays  among  groups  of 
players  there  are  restrictions  on  individual  freedom  by  the  rules  of 
the  play,  but  these  rules  are  made  only  when  they  will  increase  the 
pleasure  to  be  had  in  the  play;  if  any  rule  is  made  that  does  not 
make  the  play  more  pleasurable  the  players  will  either  soon  drop 
the  rule  or  the  play.  In  this  way  any  limitations  on  the  freedom  of 
players  are  sure  to  be  weeded  out,  excepting  such  as  result  in  some 
good  quality  in  the  play  that  satisfies  the  players  for  the  loss  of  so 
much  freedom. 

In  work  the  doer  sacrifices  his  impulse  to  choose  his  activity 
and  to  vary  it,  with  an  eye  single  to  the  accomplishment  of  a  more 
or  less  remote  object.  Economy  and  efficiency  compel  much  mo- 
notonous repetition  of  the  same  action,  which  in  turn  causes  fatigue 
and  lack  of  interest.  When  people  work  in  groups,  as  they  must  do 
in  most  modern  forms  of  work,  economy  and  efficiency  call  for  still 
further  limitation  of  the  freedom  of  the  worker  in  the  direction  of 
minute  specialization,  which  again  increases  the  monotony  and  its 
attendant  evils.  As  a  last  straw  comes  the  new  principle  of  scien- 
tific management  which  demands  that  the  worker  shall  no  more  be 
free  to  guide  the  remaining  remnant  of  activity,  but  shall  copy 
exactly  the  model  set  before  him  by  his  foreman.  For  example,  it 
is  proposed,  and  in  some  places  the  plan  is  already  in  operation,  that 
a  shoveler  shall  have  his  shovel  selected  for  him  in  relation  to  his 
weight  and  muscular  strength,  shall  load  it  exactly  so  full  every  time," 
and  shall  repeat  the  movement  exactly  so  often.  Such  limitations 
of  a  worker's  freedom  are  of  course  not  present  in  all  work.  In  gen- 
eral, the  more  skilled  a  worker  becomes  and  the  higher  the  grade  of 
position  he  holds  the  more  freedom  he  has.  The  more  capable  one 
becomes  the  more  free  he  is  to  secure  the  necessary  result  by  any 
method  he  may  devise  and  any  activity  he  may  choose.  This  may 
occur  in  almost  any  line  of  work,  but  it  is  especially  to  be  seen  in 
the  case  of  managers,  engineers,  writers,  preachers,  lawyers,  teachers, 
and  artists.  In  the  very  highest  grade,  as  in  the  case  of  an  Edison, 
a  Kipling,  a  Goethals,  a  Roosevelt,  or  a  Philips  Brooks,  work  is  as 
free  as  play,  and  really  does  not  differ  essentially  from  it.  That  is 
what  Hamilton  W.  Mabie  means  when  he  says  that  "Work,  when  it 
rises  to  freedom  and  power,  is  play."^ 

Renumeration. — The  mental  attitude  of  the  doer  toward  the 
thing  he  is  doing  is  sure  to  depend  much  on  how  promptly  he  gets 
his  pay  and  how  much  he  cares  for  it.  The  player  asks  nothing  more 
than  the  satisfaction  he  derives  from  doing  something  he  likes  to 
do;  he  puts  into  it  freely  all  the  energy  and  enthusiasm  he  has, 
because  he  gets  all  the  pay  he  asks  as  fast  as  it  is  done.  The  worker, 
seeking  by  his  efforts  to  accomplish  an  object  of  desire  that  is  more 
remote,  must  in  the  nature  of  things  wait  for  his  pay  till  he  has 


16  THK    TEACHlXf;    OF    I'LAV 

successful ly  coiuplclcd  \\\<  work.  Tliis  dchix-  iu  realizing  on  his 
investnuMit  is  sure  lo  act  as  a  dainper  on  the  worker's  enthusiasm; 
it  gives  hiiu  time  to  ask  C|uestions  the  player  never  asks:  Will  it 
pay?  Is  it  worth  while?  Promi)tness  of  reward  has  its  effect  on 
everyone,  hut  it  varies  much  with  grades  of  intelligence  and  al)ility. 
For  example,  a  ship  owner  {)ays  the  coolies  who  coal  his  ship  in  a 
Chinese  port  a  coin  for  every  sei)arate  basketful  as  it  is  carried;  he 
pays  the  dock  laborers  who  load  freight  at  the  end  of  each  day;  he 
pays  his  sailors  l)y  the  week,  his  mates  by  the  mouth,  and  his  captain 
in'  the  year. 

To  work  for  the  accomplishment  of  an  object  in  which  one  has 
no  interest  is  to  work  without  pay,  and  no  one  will  do  lhi>  except 
from  compulsion  or  fear  of  conseciuences.  Such  work  is  called 
drudgery.  The  drudge  works  with  still  less  energy  and  efficiency 
than  the  worker;  enthusiasm  is  lacking  and  fatigue  c-omes  on  (piickly 
iu  spite  of  the  small  effort.  'IMie  fact  that  the  player  is  paid  sj)ot 
cash,  the  worker  gets  a  note  due  at  some  future  time,  while  the 
drudge  gets  nothing  and  considers  himself  robbed,  goes  far  to  explain 
the  mental  attitude  of  each. 

Plav  in  Education. — The  consideration  of  the  main  facts  bear- 
ing on  the  (piestion  .seem  strongly  to  suj)port  the  view  of  Ciroos  and 
others  that  play  is  far  superior  to  work  as  an  educative  force  and 
.should  be  employed  to  even  a  greater  extent  than  at  ])resent.  The 
4iltimate  purposes  of  education  have  little  meaning  for  the  child  and 
hence  little  effect  iu  stinndatiug  his  activity.  It  is  in  fact  only  the 
most  intelligent  and  conscientious  of  nuiture  men  and  women  who 
can  appreciate  the  pnrpo.se  and  value  of  work  enough  to  give  it  the 
vigor  and  enthusiasm  necessary  for  best  results.  Hven  college  stu- 
dents profit  much  more  from  activities  in  which  an  appeal  is  made 
to  the  play  impulse  than  from  tho.se  stimulated  only  by  a  .serious  but 
remote  object.  This  the  teacher  can  do  by  so  planning  the  activities 
of  a  course  that  the  pupils  will  like  to  do  them  and  get  immediate 
sati.sfactiou  from  doing  thciii.  This  is  what  Dr.  Hrinton  means  when 
he  says  "The  measure  of  value  of  work  is  the  amount  of  play  there 
is  in  it."'  The  idea  that  peo|)le  should  become  accustomed  to 
drudgery  becau.se  they  will  ha\e  nuich  of  it  to  do  in  life  is  false.  The 
activities  of  play,  work,  and  drudgery  are  identical.  It  is  the  atmos- 
phere that  differs.  .V  farmer  hired  .some  boys  to  carry  a  pile  of  .stones 
and  throw  them  into  a  ravine.  It  was  drudgery  for  them;  they  had 
no  appreciation  lor  his  ])urpose  in  it  and  little  for  their  wages,  and 
saw  no  fun  in  it;  so  he  .set  a  fire  in  the  ra\ine  and  told  the  boys  to 
imagine  the  stones  to  be  buckets  of  water.  The  result  was  that  he 
had  the  stones  moved  in  a  short  time,  and  the  boys  enjoyed  it.'*  By 
taking  a  cue  from  this  farmer  many  a  teacher  can  lift  his  work  from 
the  le\-cl  of  a  drudge  driving  other  drudges  into  Ihe  exhilarating 
atmosphere  of  play,   where  tiie   teacher  can   <iijoy   the   freedom   ot 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  17 

creative  art  and  the  pupils  tlie  satisfaction  of  doing  something  they 
can  appreciate. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: 

1.  Webster — Unabridged  Dictionary. 

2.  Griggs,  E.  H. — Moral  Education,  Ch.  8. 

3.  Spencer,  Herbert — Principle.'^  of  Psychology,  Vol.  II,  Ch.  9. 

4.  Groos,  Karl — The  Play  of  Animals,  Ch.  1.    The  Play  of  Man. 

5.  Hall,  G.  Stanley — Adolescence,  Vol.  I,  Ch.  3. 

6.  Mabie,  Hamilton  W. — Fairy  Tales  Every  Child  Should  Know, 

Introduction. 

7.  Brinton,  D.  G. — The  Pursuit  of  Happiness. 

8.  Johnson,  Geo.  E. — Education  by  Plays  and  Games,  Ch.  2. 


Chapter  Two 

WHY  TEACH  V\.\\ 

There  is  a  faiiious  maxim  whicli  says  that  '"It  is  what  a  i)i!i)il 
docs  for  himst'H'  and  not  what  someone  does  for  him  that  educates."' 
We  can  safely  g'J  farther  and  say  that  the  eckcative  vahie  of  wiiat 
he  does  will  depend  on  how  much  vigor  he  pnts  into  it  and  how  long 
he  keejis  at  it.  This  is  why  play  is  so  important  in  edu<:-ation.  Chil- 
dren enter  into  their  play  with  so  much  vim  and  enthusiasm  and  keep 
at  it  so  many  hours  a  day  that  it  does  more  than  anything  else  to 
stimulate  and  guide  their  develoi)ment,— physically,  mentally,  and 
morally.  We  employ  play  in  education  in  two  ways.  Fu-st,  we  try 
to  bring  the  in.spiring  atmosphere  of  play  into  the  regular  sul)jects 
of  the  program  by  teaching  in  such  a  way  as  to  create  interest.  Sec- 
ond, we  teach,  either  as  a  part  of  the  program  or  in  addition  to  it, 
forms  of  y)lay  that  have  in  earlier  times  been  used  only  as  amusements 
and  diversions  and  that  have  not  been  suppo.sed  to  be  at  all  related 
to  education.  It  is  with  the  latter  use  of  play,  the  employment  in 
the  scheme  of  education  of  forms  of  activity  hitherto  unused,  that 
we  are  especially  interested  here. 

The  Play  Pkoblkm. — How  can  we  justify  the  use  in  schools  of 
such  activities  as  story  plays,  song  i)lays,  tag  games,  and  ball  games? 
Is  the  need  a  new  one,  or  have  tlu^  schools  always  been  at  fault  in 
this  matter?  Why  .should  the  school  provide  i)lay  rather  than  the 
home?  Will  not  the  young  always  play  enough  anyway  if  the\-  are 
left  to  them.selves?  .Vnd  how  can  a  grown  person  teach  a  chikl  any- 
thing about  play?  These  ((ue.stions  can  be  best  an.swered  by  a  brief 
account  of  the  experiences  through  which  the  correct  answers  have 
been  learned. 

Former  Habits  of  Livinc;.— When  our  system  of  public  schools 
was  founded,  about  ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  people  of  the  I  mted 
States  lived  in  the  country  or  in  small  country  villages.  .Vclive  out- 
door life  and  varied  occui)ations  made  peoi)le  healthy  and  .strong. 
The  natin-al  interest  of  children  in  the  activities  of  farm  life  in  a 
new  count rv,  with  a  chance  to  wander  freely  over  the^  fields  and 
through  the  forests,  gave  the  play  imi)ulse  free  reign.  There  was  a 
lack  of  opj)ortunity  for  .social  activities  and  for  reading  and  study. 
Schools  and  colleges  were  establi.shed  to  meet  this  need.  The  school 
was  kept  up  from  three  to  six  months  in  the  year.  For  good  and 
evid(Mit  reasons,  plays  and  gam(>s  had  no  plac(>  in  the  system. 

IS 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  IJ) 

A  Change  in  Life  Habits. — The  last  few  decades  have  seen  a 
great  change  in  our  manner  of  H^'ing■;  greater  than  the  race  has  e\ei- 
experienced  in  any  thousand  years  before.  Half  of  the  people  now- 
live  in  cities  and  large  towns.  Industry  has  become  enormously 
specialized,  and  a  large  percentage  of  the  people  live  and  work  in- 
doors. Social  life  is  prominent,  schools  and  colleges  are  everywhere, 
reading  matter  is  plentiful  and  cheap,  and  there  is  much  more  leisure. 
The  things  that  were  especially  lacking  in  earlier  life  are  now  supplied 
in  abundance,  but  we  lack  some  things  that  were  not  appreciated 
in  earlier  days  because  they  were  so  easy  to  get.  Bodily  vigor  has 
notably  declined.  By  improved  methods  of  sanitation  and  the  con- 
trol of  some  communicable  diseases  the  death  rate  of  persons  below 
thirty-fi\'e  years  of  age  has  been  lowered,  but  the  bodily  weakness 
that  results  from  a  less  active  life  indoors  has  made  chronic  illness 
and  invalidism  more  common,  and  the  death  rate  of  persons  above 
thirty-five  has  increased. 

The  Effect  on  the  Play  of  Children. — The  school  year  has 
been  increased  to  ten  months  and  it  is  now  proposed  to  make  it 
twelve.  The  rush  to  town  and  city  renders  the  forms  of  play  in  which 
the  country  child  revels  practically  impossible.  The  town  is  built  for 
grown  folks,  with  streets,  houses,  walks  and  lawns  for  their  conven- 
ience and  pleasure.  If  the  children  could  play  without  interfering 
with  this  convenience  and  pleasure  most  of  the  grown  folks  would 
be  willing,  but  the  space  is  too  restricted  and  forms  of  play  suited  to 
such  restricted  space  are  not  well  known.  Land  is  too  costly  for  the 
family  to  provide.  Most  of  the  play  is  driven  to  the  street.  Here 
ball  games,  the  most  useful  of  all  plays  for  groups  of  children,  are 
prohibited  because  they  result  in  broken  windows  and  danger  and 
incon^•enience  to  the  people  on  the  street.  Driven  from  legitimate 
forms  of  i^lay,  the  more  tractable  and  timid  children  put  up  with  less 
vigorous  amusements  indoors,  while  the  more  aggressive  persist  in 
forbidden  and  questionable  pleasures.  In  many  places  this  has  gone 
as  far  as  the  formation  of  gangs  organized  for  thieving  and  other 
crimes.  There  has  been  a  great  drop  in  the  physical  and  moral  status 
of  children  and  youth  due  to  the  removal  from  country  to  city.  To 
relieve  the  situation  playgrounds  are  now  being  provided  for  city 
children,  and  play  is  being  taught  in  the  schools. 

Free  Play  in  the  City. — At  the  outset  there  was  strong  opposi- 
tion to  the  plan.  Teachers  and  parents  insisted  that  "play  cannot 
be  taught."  Having  seen  and  experienced  only  the  forms  of  play 
used  by  the  isolated  country  child,  they  could  comprehend  no  other 
kind  that  would  be  of  value  and  stood  out  for  the  old-fashioned 
"free  play."  But  the  school  recess  soon  taught  teachers  and  parents 
that  free  play  has  its  dangers  in  the  city,  even  when  the  teachers 
maintain  a  police  regulation  over  it.     It  becomes  evident  that  with 


20  THK    TEACHING    OF    PLAY 

lariie  niiinhers  ])l;iyiii<i  in  ;i  narrowly  rostrictcd  si)aci',  in(li\i(liial 
freedom  cannot  have  full  sway.  Some  one  is  sure  to  exert  a  domi- 
natin<i  influenee  over  the  play  of  a  group;  if  it  is  not  a  teacher,  it  is 
sure  to  be  a  self-api)ointed  leader  from  the  more  aggressive  of  the 
players.  Unfortunately,  an  aggressive  disposition  is  not  always 
associated  with  broad  knowledge  and  good  judgment.  The  result  is 
that  "free  play"  at  recess  often  includes  unfair  play  mingled  with 
quarreling,  teasing  and  hazing  of  certain  pupils  or  near-by  residents 
or  passers-by,  l>reaking  of  windows,  and  other  mischievous  ])ranks 
of  all  kinds  and  degrees.  Pla\-  at  recess  having  i)roved  even  more 
objectionable  educationally  in  many  cases  than  the  play  of  tlie  street, 
the  recess  has  been  al)olished  by  many  school  boards. 

The  Kindekcahtex. — For  more  than  a  cctilury  tlierc  lias  l)een 
an  occ-asional  teacher  who  has  used  directed  play  successfully  as  a 
regular  i)art  of  tlie  school  program.  The  first  of  these  to  achieve 
such  notable  success  as  to  lead  to  its  adoption  by  others  was  Friedrich 
Froebel  (ITH^-lSo^),  the  founder  of  the  kindergarten.  Froebel 
designed  a  unique  plan  for  the  education  of  children  l)etween  the  ages 
of  three  and  six,  using  play  extensively.  The  activities  of  the  children 
here  are  largely  dramatic  imitations  of  the  activities  of  nature  and 
of  industrial  and  social  life.  Through  his  trying  to  dramatize  activi- 
ties which  he  has  seen,  the  child's  interest  in  them  and  his  desire  to 
know  more  ai)out  them  are  stimulated.  Playing  together  in  groups 
undfM-  the  guidance  ol"  trained  teachers,  the  children  learn  important 
social  customs,  and,  what  is  most  im])ortant  ot  all,  they  learn  how  to 
play  happily  with  other  children.  Many  of  the  best  of  our  story  jjlays 
and  .song  i)lays  originated  in  the  kindergarten. 

The  Supervised  Playgroind.  In  the  playgrounds  wliich  are 
now  being  established  rapidly  in  all  of  our  cities  and  large  towns, 
children  of  all  school  ages  are  taught  a  variety  of  plays  and  games 
and  are  given  opportunity  to  play  them  imder  supervision.  On 
account  of  the  ])roblem  of  finding  sufficient  sjjace  the  first  pla\ - 
grounds  have  been  most  often  opened  in  the  parks,  but,  if  jjossible. 
it  is  preferable  to  have  them  on  the  school  grounds.  This  is  better 
l)ecause  the  school  grounds  are  nearer  the  homes  of  the  children  than 
are  the  parks,  because  the  children  go  to  the  school  anyway,  and 
becau.se  it  has  been  found  that  the  teachers  succeed  better  than 
others  in  supervising  and  teaching  jjlay.  No  new  movement  in 
education  has  ever  met  with  such  instant  and  general  favor.  The 
teaching  of  play,  so  loJig  condemned  on  theoretical  grounds,  has 
been  found  to  succeed  for  the  following  reasons: 

(1)  System:  Time  and  place  for  \arious  kinds  of  play  can  be 
arranged  in  a  .systematic  way.  riii>  has  .several  important  advan- 
tages. Many  more  children  can  |»la,\  at  the  same  time  in  a  given 
space  without   interfering  with  cacii   other's  i)Iay.     'I'hc  inability  of 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  21 

the  children  to  acconipHsh  this  for  themselves  is  one  of  the  main 
reasons  for  the  failure  of  free  play.  Boys  and  girls  of  various  ages 
can  be  sure  of  finding  their  favorite  form  of  play  going  on  at  a  regular 
hour.  Children  can  join  groups  of  their  own  age  and  ability.  Plays 
of  different  kinds  can  be  placed  at  the  times  of  day  best  suited  to  them. 

(2)  Variety:  A  vastly  greater  variety  of  plays  can  be  taught 
than  the  children  could  ever  know  if  left  to  themselves.  The  best 
plays  of  all  places  and  races  have  been  studied  and  are  described  in 
books  that  are  within  the  reach  of  every  teacher.  Whatever  is  best 
suited  to  any  particular  group  of  children,  or  to  any  particular  place, 
time,  or  condition,  can  be  had.  New  and  improved  forms  of  play 
devised  by  ingenious  players  or  teachers  in  New  York  or  Melbourne 
can  be  used  the  next  month  in  Los  Angeles  and  Berlin.  An  interesting 
illustration  of  this  occurred  a  few  summers  ago  in  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
where  one  of  the  favorite  plays  of  the  summer  was  one  first  played 
the  preceding  summer  in  a  small  mining  town  in  central  Africa. 

(3)  Learning  How:  Players  can  be  taught  better  ways  to  play 
old  and  familiar  games.  This  kind  of  teaching,  which  has  come  to  be 
called  "coaching,"  often  succeeds  in  giving  a  game  a  life-long  interest 
which  without  it  would  be  attractive  only  as  long  as  it  remained  a 
novelty.  Many  of  the  best  games,  including  tennis,  hockey,  and 
basketball,  require  a  considerable  degree  of  knowledge  and  skill 
before  one  is  apt  to  enjoy  them.  A  good  teacher,  knowing  the  results 
of  the  experience  of  all  the  best  players  since  the  game  began,  can 
help  any  player  to  a  much  more  rapid  advancement  than  he  could 
ever  accpiire  alone.  This  has  great  moral  as  well  as  educational  value, 
for  the  lack  of  ability  to  succeed  by  good  playing  is  one  of  the  chief 
reasons  why  players  s£)metimes  try  to  evade  the  rules. 

(4')  A  Squ&rf  Deal:  Fair  play  can  often  be  secured  by  having 
an  lunpire  for  play  in  which  an  umpire  is  needed.  Some  of  the 
umpiring  can  be  done  by  the  teachers;  pupils  can  be  trained  to 
become  good  •  umpires,  or  at  least  to  act  as  such  satisfactorily  for 
a  part  of  the  time.  Better  ideals  of  conduct  can  be  developed.  Fair 
play  at  all  times  is  necessary  to  the  success  of  all  games  and  such 
plays  as  involve  rivalry.  Here  is  another  source  of  failure  in  free 
play.  Players  rarely  appreciate  the  necessity  of  providing  for  fair 
play  beforehand.  The  decisions  being  made  by  the  players,  who 
recognize  that  each  one  has  something  at  stake,  there  is  apt  to  be 
suspicion,  wrangling,  loss  of  time,  general  dissatisfaction  with  the 
play,  and  the  development  of  bad  habits.  If  there  is  any  one  thing 
that  should  be  emphasized  more  than  another  as  preparation  for 
citizenship  in  a  civilized  community,  it  is  the  habit  of  dealing  fairly 
with  rivals.  When  games  are  played  all  the  time  without  an  umpire 
they  are  apt  to  lead  to  habitual  unfairness,  because  each  side  sus- 
pects the  other  and  justifies  its  own  action  on  that  basis. 


■2-2  THE    TK.\(;H1N(!    OK    PLAY 

TiiK  PLAYCJHorxi)  SrccESSFlL. — The  iiiKiualified  siicfess  of  tlu- 
pla\groiinds  in  the  four  ways  just  mentioned  has  ])raetically  silenced 
all  opposition  to  directed  play.  The  children  prefer  well  directed 
play  on  the  playground  to  free  play  on  the  street  or  on  playgrounds 
not  so  well  directed.  Hringing  together  in  an  informal  way  so  many 
children  from  all  nationalities  and  conditions  of  life  is  doing  more 
than  any  other  one  thing  to  Americanize  our  great  foreign  ])opula- 
tion.  Children  who  have  played  on  the  playground  also  ])lay  outside 
and  carry  on  group  games  without  direction  with  nnu-h  better  suc- 
cess than  formerly.  'V\w  physical  condition  of  city  children  is  im- 
j)roving.  Arrests  of  children  are  much  less  fretpient,  and  in  some 
districts  of  the  great  cities  where  juvenile  crime  was  formerly  at  it-; 
worst,  the  police  force  has  been  cut  to  half  that  recpiired  liefore  the 
jjlaygrounds  were  established. 

Need  of  Space. — The  greatest  (lit!icult\  in  proxiding  play- 
grounds is  the  expen.se  of  .securing  enougii  land.  School  grounds 
were  laid  out  in  most  of  our  cities  and  towns  before  this  want  was 
understood  and  the  space  is  nuich  too  small.  The  last  meeting  of 
the  National  Education  Association  ex])ressed  it.self  as  l)elie^•ing 
that  every  schoolground  should  have  at  least  a  square  rod  of  space 
for  each  child  in  the  school.  This  means  an  acre  of  land  for  every 
one  hundred  sixty  pupils.  In  most  cities  so  great  an  extent  of  space 
for  i)lay  is  now  impossible  for  the  schools  already  built.  This  will 
necessarily  keep  the  playgrounds  from  reaching  the  highest  efficiency. 
More  space  is  lieing  provided  for  new  schools.  In  the  haste  to  j)ro- 
\idc  play  space,  now  that  the  need  is  realized,  some  cities  have  put 
all  axailable  funds  into  land  and  ('(piipment  and  have  opened  play- 
grounds without  supervision.  This  is  a  serious  mistake,  becau.se 
it  opens  the  way  for  all  the  evils  of  the  di.scredited  "free  play"  of 
the  street  along  with  some  new  dangers  due  to  the  presence  of  such 
apparatus  as  ladders,  swings,  teeters,  slides,  and  wading  pools,  by 
whose  impr()|)er  u.se  nnich  harm  may  come.  All  kinds  of  bad  results, 
including  the  worst  moral  influences,  and  even  loss  of  life,  have 
followed  from  this  blunder  in  administration.  The  Playground 
Association  of  .Vmcrica  has  issued  through  its  field  secretaries  and 
institute  workers  the  following  warning:  "Ecpiip  no  more  play- 
grounds until  you  have  ])rovicled  adequate  supervision  for  all  you 
now  have." 

Commercial  Play. — AVe  can  judge  .somewhat  of  how  fully  the 
need  of  play  is  su|)|)lie(l  l)y  noticing  the  number  of  commercialized 
amusements  and  tlic  extent  to  which  the\-  are  i)atronized.  Hy  com- 
mercialized amusements  is  meant  anuisements  provided  in  order  to 
make  money  from  the  jjatrons.  '1  hese  include  not  only  the  toys  and 
games  you  buy  and  take  home,  but  more  especially  the  amusements 
you  can  go  and  enjoy  by  paying  an  atlmissicju  fee.     In  this  class  are 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  23 

baseball  jjarks,  bowling  alleys,  carnivals,  circuses,  dance  halls,  excur- 
sion boats,  fairs,  gambling  dens,  horse  races,  moving  picture  shows, 
music  halls,  opium  joints,  pool  rooms,  roof  gardens,  saloons,  scenic 
railways,  skating  rinks,  theaters,  etc.  The  sums  spent  annually  by 
the  people  of  our  cities  in  these  ways  are  enormous,  exceeding  many 
times  over  all  that  is  spent  for  schools,  playgrounds,  streets,  walks, 
fire  protection,  city  government,  and  all  other  public  expenditures 
met  by  taxation.  It  is  very  evident  that  the  play  facilities  thus  far 
provided  in  public  parks  and  playgrounds  do  not  satisfy  the  play 
impulses  of  the  population. 

Recreation  Centers. — Just  as  rapidly  as  it  can  be  seen  how 
and  where  the  playground  falls  short  of  meeting  the  need,  it  is  now^ 
being  supplemented  by  what  is  called  a  "recreation  center."  This 
is  a  building,  erected  at  public  expense  and  designed  to  furnish  an 
opportunity  for  kinds  of  play  not  suited  to  the  playground,  and  at 
times  when  the  playground  is  not  at  its  best, — usually  in  the  evening, 
in  bad  weather,  and  especially  during  the  winter.  The  l)uilding  is 
preferably  located  on  the  playground,  and  is  aj)t  to  contain  one  or 
two  gymnasiums,  baths,  swimming  pools,  a  library,  and  reading 
room,  a  lunch  room,  a  kindergarten,  rooms  that  can  be  used  for 
lectures  and  concerts,  mothers'  meetings,  social  clubs,  literary  socie- 
ties and  amateur  theatricals,  and  special  rooms  to  meet  special  local 
needs.  Any  club,  society  or  group  in  the  neighborhood  can  hold 
parties  and  dances  in  the  gymnasium,  or  meetings  of  various  kinds 
in  rooms  suitable  for  them,  by  engaging  such  rooms  beforehand. 
Classes  in  folk  dancing  and  recreative  gymnastics  and  games  are 
taught.  The  teachers  encourage  all  forms  of  wholesome  recreation 
and  numage  them  for  the  best  interests  of  all.  IVIany  grown  people 
and  younger  persons  who  cannot  profit  from  the  playground  are 
accommodated  here  instead  of  being  obliged  to  patronize  the  com- 
mercialized amusements.  School  buildings  are  now  coming  into  use 
as  recreation  centers,  and  this  use  of  them  is  proving  so  important 
that  it  is  bringing  about  changes  in  the  construction  of  new  school 
buildings  so  as  to  make  them  more  useful. 

Reforming  Play  Habits. — In  spite  of  all  that  is  being  done, 
there  are  still  many  who  engage  in  forms  of  play  that  destroy  the 
health  and  character  of  the  players.  Some  of  these,  such  as  gambling, 
sexual  vice,  and  various  drag  habits,  are  in  themselves  vicious  and 
harmful.  In  other  cases,  the  most  common  of  which  is  the  commer- 
cial dance  hall,  the  harm  comes  chiefly  from  the  way  the  place  is 
managed.  Laws  regulating  dance  halls  and  the  competition  of  the 
recreation  centers  are  improving  these  conditions.  Reform  began 
many  years  ago  in  attempts  to  suppress  the  worst  forms  of  vicious 
play  by  prohibitive  laws.  This  method  has  not  been  wholly  success- 
ful.    Just  as  a  thirsty  man  will  drink  from  a  disease  laden  pond  if 


24  THE    TEACHIXC    OF    PI.AY 

he  can  find  nothing  better,  so  men  choose  vices  as  amusements,  not 
because  they  are  naturally  vicious,  but  because  they  crave  play  and 
have  learned  no  better  form.  The  first  and  most  important  step  in 
reformin<>;  the  i)lay  habits  of  a  community  is  to  teach  everyone  early 
in  life  how  to  play  a  lot  of  f>oo(i  wholesome  games.  Such  play  is 
more  fun  than  vice,  unless  a  bad  taste  has  been  cultivated.  By  sup- 
jilying  something  better  in  the  place  of  what  is  proiiibitcd,  the  law 
may  be  made  more  effective  than  it  has  been  heretofore  in  suppress- 
ing these  unnecessary  causes  of  physical  and  moral  disease. 

Play  A.moxc;  Edicated  People. — .V  fair  ae(|uaiiitance  with 
a  variety  of  good  vigorous  forms  of  recreation  cannot  fail  to  raise  the 
standard  of  health  and  physique  among  our  well  educated  middle- 
class  people.  These  people  have,  in  the  main,  employments  calling 
for  much  nervous  force  and  little  bodily  exercise;  and  their  play 
habits,  while  not  including  much  that  is  immoral  or  positively  harm- 
ful, are  much  too  cpiiet  to  give  a  fair  degree  of  bodily  strength. 
"Organized  idleness  with  thrills"  is  an  a|)t  phrase  to  describe  the 
ty])ical  play  activities  of  this  class.  A  play  |)rograni  consisting  of 
banquets,  calls,  dinners,  dances,  lectures,  luncheons,  musicales,  re- 
ceptions, theaters  and  the  like  needs  to  be  toned  up  by  a  sprinkling 
of  baseball,  coasting,  canoeing,  cross-country  walking,  golf,  horse- 
back riding,  rowing,  skating,  ski-running,  swimming,  tennis,  etc.  A 
moderate  skill  and  familiarity  in  such  recreations  as  these  go  far  to 
keep  up  the  enjoyment  of  vigorous  exercise  as  age  advances,  and  so 
help  to  make  men  and  women  more  efficient,  postponing  until  old 
age,  where  it  belongs  if  anywhere,  the  fat  and  misshapen  stage  of 
existence  that  we  too  often  .see  in  people  of  middle  life.  This  is 
another  good  reason  for  the  teaching  of  the  best  kind  of  play. 

College  Athletics. — American  college  students  have  main- 
tained for  them.selves  a  system  of  partially  directed  play  for  twenty 
years  or  more.  The  system  is  known  by  the  name  "college  athletics," 
and  has  been  imitated  in  most  of  the  high  schools  of  the  country.  .Vt 
first  the  |)lay  was  not  directed  in  any  way,  but  gradually  the  colleges 
and  such  high  schools  as  can  afford  it  have  followed  the  exami)le  of 
the  larger  universities  in  em|)loying  a  "coach"  to  instruct  the  pla\'ers 
in  the  details  of  play,  and  the  teachers  have  in  most  places  assumed 
some  direction  over  its  management.  Tlic  original  purpose  of  the 
])lay  here  was  similar  to  that  of  the  modern  j)layground,-  to  proviiie 
titudent.s^  with  thd  best  kind  of  recreation;  but  from  the  start  the 
.system  has  failed  in  large  measure  To  accom])lish  its  object. 

Defect.s  i.\  the  Syste.nl — 'I'hc  cause  of  this  failure  is  ])rimaril\' 
the  necessity  of  maintaining  itself  financially.  Those  who  furnish 
the  funds  to  maintain  the  academic  features  oi  college  life  have  not 
.seen  their  wav  to  do  the  same  for  athletics,  and  so  the  students  have 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  "io 

been  obliged  to  give  up  the  play  or  finance  it  themselves.  In  casting 
about  for  a  way  to  do  this  they  tried  and  adopted  the  methods  of  the 
commercial  baseball  leagues.  They  soon  found  that  to  make  money 
from  gate  receipts  of  games  it  is  important  to  have  a  winning  team, 
and  ever  since  that  day  the  winning  of  games,  and  not  the  original 
purpose,  has  been  the  chief  aim  of  college  athletics.  The  system 
supports  itself,  and  also  aids  in  stimulating  school  and_^colleg£_spirit 
and  loyalty.  Incidentally  it  gives  the  students  a  chance  to  see  whole- 
some forms  of  play,  if  not  to  take  part  in  them,  but  college  and  high 
school  students  need  to  form  good  play  habits  cpiite  as  much  as  other 
people.  This  calls  for  the  application  of  playground  methods  and 
purposes  to  supplement  the  athletic  system,  which  provides  vigorous 
play  only  for  the  few  who  need  it  least.  The  commercial  basis  of  the 
system  is  also  unfortunate  in  giving  the  students  an  exaggerated  idea 
of  the  importance  of  winning  without  putting  enough  emphasis  on 
fair  play  and  considerate  treatment  of  opponents.  Such  training 
tends  to  develop  college  men  into  politicians  rather  than  into  states- 
men. In  many  institutions  the  authorities  have  now  become  inter- 
ested in  jjroviding  more  students  a  chance  for  the  benefits  of  athletic 
training,  and  a  few  are  already  teaching  games  and  sports  to  the 
entire  student  body.  Experience  shows  that  it  is  opportunity  to 
play  and  instruction  in  how  to  play  that  are  needed  to  stimulate  the 
play  impulse;  the  excessive  stimulation  that  is  given  the  college 
athletic  team  by  coach  and  spectators  is  not  necessary. 

Better  Play  for  All. — It  is  frequently  said  of  the  American 
people  that  they  do  not  know  how  to  play,  and  the  charge  seems  to 
be  altogether  too  true.  We  have  been  too  prone  to  look  upon  our 
play  as  a  dessert, — something  to  tickle  the  palate, — to  be  taken  or 
not  according  to  convenience  and  mood,  and  to  be  chosen  by  no  better 
standards  than  those  of  whim  and  pocket  book.  It  is  time  Americans 
were  awakened  to  the  full  im})ortance  of  the  educative  force  of  play 
habits.  Play  of  the  wrong  sort  has  destroyed  individuals,  nations 
and  races,  when  a  better  type  of  play  would  ha\'e  raised  them  to  a 
greater  eminence  instead.  At  leisure  and  wealth  increase,  as  they 
are  rapidly  doing,  the  amount  of  play  must  increase  and  its  good 
effects  be  produced  in  proportion.  Commercialized  play,  with  its 
large  percentage  of  amusements  that  are  useless  and  vicious,  stands 
waiting  to  supply  every  demand  and  to  pocket  the  profits.  This 
makes  it  imperative  for  the  future  welfare  of  the  nation  and  the 
race  that  wholesome  play  shall  be  taught  as  an  essential  feature  of 
education  to  all  coming  generations.  Such  a  plan  calls  for  room  and 
equipment  far  beyond  the  ability  of  the  home  to  supply.  Public 
spirit  must  inspire  the  movement  and  public  action  carry  it  to  full 
realization. 


Chapter  Three 

now  A(iE  AM)  SEX  INFLUENCE  I'EAY 

Eadi  age  hikI  sex  has  its  special  play  interests.  The  hoy  of 
three  plays  horse,  the  hoy  of  six  plays  tag,  at  twelve  he  plays  scrub, 
at  sixteen  he  plays  hasehall,  at  twenty-four  he  takes  his  lady  friend 
driving,  at  thirty-five  he  plays  with  his  lawn  and  his  garden,  and  so 
on.  The  girl  in  like  rotation  takes  up  dolls,  tag,  l)<dl,  music,  fancy 
work,  love,  honse  decoration,  the  club,  etc.  One  interesting  feature 
of  these  changes  of  interest  is  the  remarkable  completeness  of  the 
change.  The  boy  who  has  played  horse  most  enthusiastically  of  all 
his  companions  will  in  a  year  or  two  come  to  have  the  most  unbounded 
contempt  for  any  boy  who  can  be  so  foolisli  as  to  play  horse.  Proba- 
bly the  reason  why  adults  seldom  speak  of  their  own  ]jlay  by  that 
name  is  because  of  the  feeling  that  the  j)lays  of  children  are  so  far 
beneath  them.  The  same  thing  will  go  far  to  explain  why  adults 
have  been  so  slow  to  recognize  the  educational  \alue  of  the  play  of 
children. 

The  .special  characteristics  and  interests  of  the  diti'erent  ages 
nuiy  be  briefly  stated  as  follows: 

Infancy:  from  Birth  to  J}  Years.-  During  this  period  the 
child  grows  more  rapidly  than  at  any  other  time,  both  proi)ortionately 
and  in  actual  weight  and  height.  The  bodily  nu)vements  are  chiefly 
large  and  simple  ones,  done  with  little  sustained  interest  or  attention. 
The  great  incentive  to  action  .seems  to  be  the  instinctive  (lesire  for 
free  activity,  the  variety  of  the  movements  rather  than  their  results 
being  the  main  source  of  ])leasure.  Fatigue  comes  on  quickly,  yet 
by  constantly  varying  his  exercise  the  infant  is  al)le  to  keej)  uj)  almost 
incessant  activity.*! 

^  Thf  Ace  of  Dhamatic  Imitation:    from  3  to  G  years. — After 

the  period  of  infancy  there  is  a  period  lasting  until  the  age  of  about 
ten  years  when  growth  is  nearly  uniform  from  year  to  year;  four 
pounds  in  weight  and  two  inches  in  height.  During  the  first  part  of 
this  time,  up  to  about  six  years  of  age,  children  are  especiallx  inter- 
ested in  imitating  what  they  see  others  do,  giving  the  j)eriod  the  name 
of  the  "age  of  imitation,"  or  the  "dranuitic  age."  Occupations  of 
the  household,  the  farm,  the  store,  the  railroad,  and  the  street,  are 
imitated  with  great  interest  and  enthusiasm,  as  are  also  the  plays  of 


*Johnson:    Education  In   l'la\  s  and  (lanus,  iliaptcr  3. 
fOppcnhcim:    The  1)(\  ("lopnimt  of  llu'  Cliilil,  cliaplt-rs  2  and  3. 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  "Z  t 

older  children  and  the  activities  of  animals.  Much  imagination  is 
involved,  and  the  play  is  often  a  make-believe  of  the  most  realistic 
kind.  Children  of  this  age  are  eager  to  take  almost  any  exercises  of 
the  simpler  sort  given  by  imitation,  but  these  are  not  copied  exactly 
and  are  taken  with  most  interest  and  enthusiasm  when  there  is  a 
dramatization  of  some  activity  of  real  life  that  they  have  seen.  The 
children  like  to  run  like  horses,  fly  like  birds,  and  imitate  various 
occupations.  The  story  plays  are  among  the  best  exercises  that 
can  be  chosen  for  children  of  this  age. 

The  Age  of  Self-Assertion:  from  6  to  12  Years. — From 
imitation  of  others  the  chief  interest  of  the  child  now  turns  to  the 
doing  of  real  things  for  himself,  with  great  pride  in  what  he  can  do; 
he  often  takes  a  great  dislike  to  the  make-believe  he  has  hitherto 
enjoyed  so  much,  and  asserts  his  actual  self,  so  that  the  period  has 
received  the  name  of  the  "age  of  self-assertion."  This  is  also  the  • 
age  of  most  rapid  gain  in  nuisc'Lilar  control.  The  interest  and  ability 
are  not  so  much  in  the  line  of  minute  and  exact  things,  like  writing 
and  sewing,  although  these  things  can  be  done  much  better  than 
before,  but  rather  in  feats  of  strength  and  skill,  such  as  running, 
jumping,  throwing,  climbing,  and  the  like.  While  great  precision  of 
mo\ement  is  not  yet  possible,  still  this  is  the  time  when  practice  that 
will  later  demand  the  highest  degree  of  skill,  as  in  playing  the  piano, 
must  be  begun  if  the  best  grade  of  excellence  in  it  is  ever  to  be  at- 
tained. Anyone  who  is  to  become  expert  as  a  ball  player,  skater, 
pianist,  etc.,  must  begin  at  this  time  or  he  will  be  handicapped  ever 
afterwards.  This  is  the  main  reason  why  girls  cannot  usually  per- 
form such  acts  as  throwing,  catching  and  batting  accurately  or 
gracefully.  The  average  boy  of  ten  practices  these  acts  a  thousand 
times  to  the  girl's  one,  and  has  ability  in  proportion.  An  occasional 
girl  can  throw  and  catch  a  ball  as  well  as  boys  because  she  has  prac- 
ticed as  much  and  has  in  that  way  developed  the  nervous  machinery 
of  coordination;  boys  usually  throw  with  the  left  hand  as  poorly 
and  awkwardly  as  girls  do  with  the  right, — in  fact,  with  the  same 
style  of  motion.  One  who  has  passed  the  golden  period  for  learning 
coordinations  and  has  not  learned  them  is  necessarily  less  able  and 
less  inclined  to  practice  plays  involving  active  movement. 

The  exercises  most  attractive  at  this  age  are  the  games  in  which 
there  is  a  good  deal  of  ^'igorous  exertion  and  skill  and  where  the  in- 
dividual player  is  prominent.  The  games  in  which  one  player  is 
"It"  are  popular  here,  because  the  one  who  is  "It"  is  in  competition 
with  all  the  others  and  holds  a  conspicuous  place.  Boys  of  this  age 
imitate  the  games  of  older  players,  not  in  any  make-believe  way,  but 
in  place  of  team-play  there  is  emphasis  on  indiA'idual  excellence. 
For  example,  baseball  is  very  popular,  but  the  game  played  most 
often  is  not  a  team  game,  but  one  in  which  each  "works  up"  to  the 
highest  positions  and  holds  his  place  at  bat,  if  skilful  enough,  even 


/ 


28  THE    TEACniXf.    OF    PLAY 

wluMi  Ihc  others  hatt'mu  with  him  are  put  out.  There  is  still  interest 
in  (Iraniatie  play,  ))r<)vi<iing,  in  the  ease  of  hoys,  there  is  something 
warlike  or  heroic  al)out  it,  as  in  jjlaying  Indians  or  knights,  and  in 
military  drill.  Hoys  of  this  age  enjoy  gymnastie  exercises  if  they  are 
vigorous  and  rather  difficult,  and  if  they  are  not  given  too  much. 

During  this  period  the  girls  usually  fall  l)ehind  the  l)oys  in 
.strength  and  skill,  but  this  is  chiefly  due  to  the  social  influences  which 
keep  the  girl  from  playing  outdoors  as  actively  and  freely  as  boys  do; 
in  spite  of  this  restraint  some  girls  are  fully  equal  to  the  boys  in 
physical  ability  at  this  age.  The  girls  prefer  the  same  kind  of  games, 
l)ut  in  general  they  are  inclined  to  work  with  less  vigor  and  to  have 
more  interest  in  exercises  that  look  better  and  develop  ease  of  move- 
ment rather  than  strength.  Above  the  fourth  grade  the  games  and 
gymnastics  are  usually  more  satisfactory  if  the  boys  and  girls  are 
eparate,  but  it  is  not  al)solutely  necessar\-  until  the  seventh.* 


Adolescence. — At  about  eleven,  girls  begin  another  period  of 
rapid  grow'th  lasting  five  or  six  years;  the  boys  begin  this  period 
from  one  to  two  years  later.  This  is  the  period  in  which  each  sex 
gradually  takes  on  the  form  and  characteristics  of  adult  life.  It  has 
been  called  the  "age  of  loyalty,"  because  the  interest  in  exercise 
centers  about  team  games  rather  than  individual  play;  the  qualities 
most  useful  in  civilized  life  are  now  beginning  to  take  the  i)lace  of 
those  most  useful  in  savage  life.  The  social  element  in  phiy  now 
becomes  more  prominent,  and  various  forms  of  purcl.\  xxial  pla\' 
appear.  Among  the.se  are  "mating"  plays,  which  lead  to  and  ac- 
company courtship  and  marriage. 

The  growth  in  this  j)eriod  includes  a  great  increase  in  the  l)ulk 
of  the  nuiscular  tissues.  In  connection  with  this,  and  ])robably 
related  to  it,  is  a  tendency  to  more  severe  efl"ort  than  before,  but  not 
to  long  sustained  efl'ort ;  at  the  same  time  the  interest  is  gradually 
more  and  more  sustained  along  certain  lines.  Boys  and  girls  now 
require  difterent  exerci.ses;  those  of  the  boys  include  the  athletic 
outdoor  games,  such  as  baseball,  football,  etc.,  and  competitive 
exercises  of  all  kinds;  in  gymnatic  work  the  German  exercises  on 
apparatus  are  most  enjoyed;  cla.ss  exercises  are  able  to  hold  the  in- 
terest for  a  time  if  there  is  a  conscious  improvement  in  some  line  of 
.skill,  as  in  club  swinging,  wand  exercises,  or  even  posture  work; 
always  providing  there  is  a  definite  course  leading  to  a  certain  re- 
{|uirement  of  (>\ccllence,  the  course  ending  when  the  work  has  been 
done  correctly.  Boys  of  this  age  especially  dislike  an  indcHnite  series 
of  les.sons  that  lead  nowhere  and  have  no  apparent  reason  or  end.  for 
they  do  not  appreciate  the  esthetic  element. 

During  adole.scence  the  girls  are  fond  ol  many  games,  but  they 
do  not  play  them  with  the  same  vigor  as  I  lie  boys.  ])artly  because  of 


*Lee:    Playground  Education.    Educational  llcview,  NOi.  '2'2.  i)aui'  U!). 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  29 

the  restrictions  imposed  by  society.  Exercises  like  tenuis,  that  can 
be  taken  in  a  girl's  style  of  dress,  are  popular,  but  indoor  games,  such 
as  basketball  and  the  simpler  games  leading  to  it,  and  class  exercises 
with  musical  accompaniment  are  quite  as  well  liked.  Of  all  exercises 
the  gymnastic  dances  are  the  most  popular,  although  other  kinds  of 
class  gymnastics  are  much  more  popular  with  girls  than  with  boys. 

On  account  of  the  girls'  beginning  the  period  of  rapid  growth 
sooner  than  the  boys  there  is  a  time  when  the  girls  are  larger  than  the 
boys  of  the  same  age;  the  more  active  of  the  girls  often  excel  the 
average  boy  in  bodily  exercises  at  this  time.  Later,  the  boys,  as  they 
reach  the  time  of  most  rapid  growth,  pass  the  girls  and  are  afterwards 
taller  and  heavier. 

The  danger  from  exercise  in  this  period  lies  chiefly  in  the  direc- 
tion of  too  long  continued  effort.  Severe  exertion  is  not  so  apt  to  be 
injurious  as  is  in  earlier  or  later  life,  unless  too  much  prolonged.  For 
example,  it  is  not  football,  but  long  distance  running  that  is  most 
injurious  for  high  school  boys;  it  is  not  so  much  the  severity  of  games 
as  their  length  without  interruption.  This  makes  basketball  espe- 
cially severe  for  boys  of  this  age;  the  girls'  game  rightly  has  modifica- 
tions that  prevent  the  individual  plavers  from  too  long  continuous 
effort. 

Under  present  conditions  in  school  and  college  the  boys  and  girls 
of  this  age  do  not  have  sufficient  encouragement  to  engage  in  active 
games  and  sports.  Space  and  equipment  are  usually  not  provided 
except  for  the  few  best  athletes,  the  winning  of  a  few  victories  being 
considered  of  more  importance  than  the  development  of  the  physique 
of  the  mass  of  students. 

The  Age  of  Maturity. — After  reaching  full  growth,  which  is 
usually  completed  in  women  at  18  and  in  men  at  '-21,  we  have  in  the 
next  15  or  20  years  the  prime  of  life.  Here  is  the  age  of  greatest 
physical  ability.  Practically  all  the  world's  athletic  records  are  made 
by  men  in  this  period  of  life.  The  possibilities  of  bodily  develo})ment, 
in  strength,  speed,  endurance,  and  skill,  are  so  far  beyond  average 
attainment  that  they  form  one  of  the  most  attractive  features  of 
exhibitions  given  on  the  stage.  The  marvels  of  human  strength  and 
skill  exhibited  by  ball  players,  jugglers,  trick  riders,  acrobats,  and 
strong  men  are  among  the  greatest  wonders  of  the  world.  And  yet 
the  average  man  is  conspicuously  lacking  in  all  these  physical  quali- 
ties, and  the  average  woman  still  more  so,  because  these  powers  have 
not  been  developed.  Strength  tests  of  600  men  and  600  women, 
taken  at  the  Battle  Creek  Sanitarium,  show  that  the  women  were 
not  quite  half  as  strong  as  the  men.  Tests  made  at  the  Boston 
Normal  School  of  Gymnastics  indicate  that  women  students  have 
less  than  one-fourth  the  working  efficiency  of  men,  in  athletic  games. 

The  difference  in  the  physical  ability  of  men  and  women  is  due 
to  a  small  extent  to  heredity,  but  probably  much  more  to  habits  of 


30  THE    TKA(  1II\(;    OF    I'LAV 

litV.  'IMu'  iiirl  of  t\v('l\(>  usiiall\'  drops  all  actixc  I'ccrcat ions  and  luMico- 
t'ortli  never  does  an\ihin^'  to  develop  the  lar^c  niuseles  l)ody;  the 
boy  usually  keej^s  up  his  aetive  play  several  years  lonfjer.  The  girl 
has  less  opportunity  than  the  hoy  lor  sueh  exereises,  and  besides  this 
she  is  kept  from  it  by  the  influence  of  parents,  teachers,  and  «>eneral 
public  opinion.  Although  public  ()j)inion  does  not  now  prefer  a  weak 
and  delicate  type  of  physicjue  for  women  as  it  once  did,  still  it  com- 
pels the  girl,  when  she  reaches  the  age  of  12  or  14,  to  meet  require- 
ments in  dress  and  personal  decoration  that  is  practically  prohibitive 
of  bodily  developmenl,  except  among  girls  of  the  wealthy  classes. 

One  reason  why  the  average  man  and  woman  are  so  far  b("low 
the  standard  of  pliysi((ue  they  should  have  is  the  lack  of  opportunil  \- 
for  active  recreations.  The  meager  chance  provided  by  the  school 
and  college  is  wanting  as  soon  as  they  leave  the  institutions  of  learn- 
ing, so  that  only  the  few  who  belong  to  certain  expensive  "Clubs" 
have  any  place  where  such  recreation  can  be  had.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  amusements  of  the  other  type,  where  the  senses  and  the 
emotions  can  be  exercised,  as  in  the  theater,  the  banquet  hall,  the 
ballroom,  and  the  excursion  steamer,  are  plenty  and  ea.sy  of 
attainment. 

Wc  usually  speak  of  '"j)lay"  only  when  referring  to  the  actixitie: 
of  children,  but  older  people  spend  a  great  deal  of  their  time  in  (loin< 
things  in  exactly  the  same  spirit  and  for  exactl\'  the  sanu^  reason  that 
children  play, — simply  for  the  sake  of  doing  them.  Some  of  these 
things,  such  as  excursions,  dances,  socials,  and  bantpiets,  are  called 
by  the  more  dignified  name  of  "recreations,"  but  there  is  no  reason 
why  we  should  not  call  them  play.  In  addition  to  these  things,  and 
to  the  pla\'  clement  that  usiudly  enters  into  his  daily  occu|)ation,  the 
average  grown-uj)  manages  to  get  into  each  day  a  considerable  amount 
of  jilay.  He  (or  she)  nuiy  not  seem  to  be  doing  much,  but  that  is  a 
feature  that  the  grown-up  especially  likes.  Prol)ably  half  the  j)eoi)lc 
in  the  I'nited  States  over  twenty-five  years  of  age  hav(>  as  one  of 
their  favorite  forms  of  play  to  lounge  in  an  easy  chair  in  Iron  I  of  the 
fire  in  the  company  of  a  friend  or  a  book.  The  adult  lia>  a  more 
cidtivated  taste  and  a  dislike  for  unnecessary  exertion,  making  his 
play  take' a  different  form  from  that  of  the  child,  but  \\v  should  not 
deceive  himself  into  thinking  that  he  does  not  play. 

Not  only  does  the  grown-up  i)lay  a  great  deal  more  than  he  has 
believed,  but  his  play  is  very  expensixc.  Only  an  occasional  boy  can 
ha\e  a  baseball  uniform,  but  exery  boy's  parents,  if  they  have  even 
a  moderate  income,  feel  that  they  nuist  have  a  costume  to  wear  for 
their  play;  and  many  a  coui)le  of  only  moderate  means  is  eiiuipjicd 
with  suits  for  dancing  parties  that  cost  enough  to  ecpiip  several  base- 
l>all  teams  and  to  spare.  When  we  hear  that  Chicago  has  spent  ten 
millions  of  dollars  to  l)uy  ground  and  e({uipment  for  play-grounds, 
it  .seems  a  large  s  ini.  but  the  grown-ups  of  thai  cilN'  spcMid  more  than 
that  everv  vear  in  going  to  the  theater,  which  is  onU    one  of  many 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  31 

forms  of  adult  play  into  which  money  is  poured  freely.  The  equip- 
ment for  the  play  of  the  grown-up,  including  houses,  furniture, 
musical  instrmiients,  silver,  cut  glass  and  china,  horses  and  carriages, 
automobiles,  boats,  costumes,  jewelry,  flowers,  books,  newspapers, 
magazines,  and  scores  of  other  things,  should  be  kept  in  mind  when 
we  are  considering  the  expense  of  necessary  equipment  for  the  play 
of  children. 

It  is  worth  noticing  in  this  connection  that  adults  of  primitive 
races,  especially  the  men.  always  incline  to  choose  amusements  that 
are  degrading  and  demoralizing,  in  place  of  the  educative  plays  of 
the  young.  Gambling  and  the  use  of  intoxicants  are  the  most  uni- 
versal of  these  vices,  and  in  spite  of  intelligent  public  opinion  and 
prohibitive  laws  many  men  among  civilized  nations  fall  victims  to 
them.  A  better  acquaintance  with  outdoor  games  and  a  better 
opportunity  to  play  them  would  go  far  to  keep  young  men  from 
falling  into  habits  of  vice  and  dissipation.  With  the  majority  of 
women  the  purely  social  plays  predominate,  such  as  conversation, 
gossip,  calls,  teas,  literary  clubs,  musicales,  receptions,  etc. 

Occasionally  a  man  or  woman  is  seen  who  keeps  up  the  practice 
of  active  plays  and  games  with  all  the  zest  of  childhood,  and  as  a 
result  these  people  retain  a  standard  of  health  and  vigor  much  above 
the  average.  The  lack  of  interest  of  most  adults  of  the  present  time 
in  the  more  healthful  forms  of  play  is  no  doubt  due  in  part  at  least 
to  the  fact  that  as  children  they  lacked  opportunity  to  be  come  expert 
enough  in  them  to  make  them  permanently  interesting.  The  school 
should  dcA'clop  the  powers  and  interests  that  lead  to  intelligent  and 
healthful  play  as  well  as  those  leading  to  higher  occupations  and  better 
citizenship.  All  that  can  be  done  to  interest  younger  boys  and  girls 
in  the  more  active  and  wholesome  type  of  play  will  help  to  prevent 
in  their  more  mature  years  the  low  grade  of  physicjue  that  probably 
will  ne\er  be  remedied  for  the  adults  of  the  present  generation.* 

The  Age  of  Decline. — Following  the  age  of  maturity,  begin- 
ning at  widely  varying  times,  is  the  period  of  gradually  failing  powers. 
How  early  this  will  come  on  and  how  rapidly  it  will  approach  its  end 
in  death  depends  on  the  conditions  and  habits  of  life  and  on  the  grade 
of  physique  that  has  been  developed  during  preceding  years.  Workers 
in  some  kinds  of  factories  are  often  old  and  infirm  at  forty;  workers 
on  the  farm  often  live  well  past  ninety.  This  is  another  strong  reason 
for  providing  for  the  bodily  development  of  young  people  in  school 
and  Out  of  it. 

Alter  the  time  for  the  most  strenuous  games  has  passed,  men 
and  women  often  enjoy  and  profit  from  active  outdoor  games  that 
are  more  moderate  in  their  requirements.  Among  these  are  golf, 
lawn  bowling,  archery,  croquet,  curling,  and  a  few  others.* 


*Sargeiit:   Health,  Strength,  and  Power,  chapter  XI  and  XII. 


Chapter  Four 

KINDS  OF  PLA^ 

To  study  this  topic  from  the  staiul])oint  of  the  teacher  we  need 
first  to  look  at  the  whole  field  of  play  activities  and  its  natural  (li\i- 
sions;  then  at  the  group  of  j)lays  selected  for  educatiojial  |)uri)oses. 
in(|uiring  into  the  reasons  for  selection;  finally  we  need  to  study  the 
plays  used  in  education  in  such  a  way  as  to  place  them  in  clearly 
relateti  groups,  so  as  to  facilitate  learning  them.  One  who  is  preparing 
to  teach  plays  is  in  nnich  the  same  position  as  one  who  starts  clerk- 
ing in  a  dry-goods  or  hardware  store.  The  new  clerk  finds  on  the 
shelves  hundreds  of  different  and  apparently  unrelated  articles  whose 
names  and  uses  he  must  learn  as  soon  as  possible,  and  the  new  teacher 
finds  just  as  many  hundreds  of  different  and  ai)parently  unrelated 
forms  of  play;  success  and  advancement  in  each  case  re(|uires  rapid 
and  accurate  mastery  of  the  whole  stock,  and  the  time  re(|uired  to 
do  it  may  he  anywhere  from  six  weeks  to  six  years,  dejxMiding  on 
how  intelligent  and  simple  a  classification  is  used  to  aid  in  the  learn- 
ing. The  teacher  who  wishes  to  get  an  intelligent  view  of  tlu'  whole 
field  of  educative  play  in  a  few  weeks  must  study  plays  in  their 
natural  groups,  noticing  carefully  relations  and  lack  of  relations, 
grouping  them  about  certain  important  types  from  which  the  greater 
number  of  plays  can  be  remembered  as  slight  variations.  The  names 
that  have  been  given  to  these  plays  l)y  the  children  are  of  little  help. 
For  example,  it  is  no  easy  task  to  learn  how  to  play  lilack  man.  lilack 
Tom,  IJugalxx),  lilack  and  AN  hite,  Chinese  Wall,  and  '■H)  other  plays 
similarly  named,  if  they  are  taken  up  as  individual  and  unrelated 
plays;  but  when  it  is  recognized  that  the  whole  '25  are  variations  of 
the  familiar  game  of  Pom  Pom  Pullaway,  the  task  is  comparatively 
easy.  This  suggests  the  importance  of  the  teacher's  getting  a  clear 
idea  of  the  fundamental  divisions  of  educational  plays,  as  a  basis  for 
making  such  groui)ings  when  we  come  to  the  practical  work. 


Plav  activities 


indixidual 


socionomic 


motor 
sensory 
intellectual 
emotional 

imitati\-e 

social 
1  fighting 
!  mating 


3!2 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  33 

All  Play  Classified. — The  above  chart  from  Groos'  "Play 
of  Man,"  gives  a  satisfactory  view  of  the  whole  field  of  play  activity. 
He  first  distinguishes  the  individual  plays,  those  that  one  may  engage 
in  by  himself  without  regard  for  others,  from  the  plays  in  which  the 
relation  to  others  forms  an  important  element.  The  former  may  be 
illustrated  by  playing  in  the  sand,  playing  solitaire  with  cards,  garden- 
ing, looking  at  pictures,  or  listening  to  music;  the  latter  by  playing 
ball,  playing  school,  or  by  the  activities  of  a  church  "social."  In 
the  first  group  one  is  impelled  to  play  by  an  impulse  to  exercise  his 
powers;  in  the  second  group  the  same  powers  are  employed,  but  in 
addition  to  the  impulse  impelling  the  individual  to  play  there  are 
other  strong  impulses  of  a  social  character. 

Individual  Play. — Individual  play  is  naturally  classified  ac- 
cording to  the  powers  and  faculties  exercised.  Motor  play  may  be 
illustrated  by  walking  or  skating;  sensory  play  by  listening  to  a 
song  bird  or  looking  at  a  beautiful  sunset;  intellectual  play  by  play- 
ing whist  with  cards  or  by  solving  puzzles  and  riddles.  Emotional 
play  occurs  when  playful  activities  of  the  other  powers  react  strongly 
on  the  feelings,  as  is  often  the  case  in  the  theater  and  other  popular 
amusements.  This  division  of  individual  play  activities  is  interest- 
ing and  useful  because  it  shows  at  a  glance  how  wide  a  range  of 
activity  play  covers.  It  is  evident,  as  soon  as  one  thinks  of  it  that 
there  are  no  human  powers  or  faculties  that  are  not  naturally  exer- 
cised in  play;  in  other  words,  it  is  possible  through  play  to  develop 
and  train  any  power  or  faculty  we  have.  It  is  also  easy  to  see  that 
the  plays  usually  called  "motor"  or  "muscular  exercise"  are  not 
exclusively  activity  of  the  motor  powers,  as  the  name  implies,  but 
are  well-balanced  combinations  of  motor,  sensory,  intellectual,  and 
emotional  activity.  In  swimming,  skating,  or  canoeing,  for  example, 
there  is  always  exercise  of  sight,  hearing,  touch,  nmscular  sense,  and 
temperature  sense;  exercise  of  memory,  imagination,  attention,  and 
usually  of  reason;  quick  decisions  and  accurate  judgments  must  be 
niade.  It  may  also  be  said  that  sensory  and  intellectual  play  always 
involves  motor  exercise,  but  the  slight  muscular  exercise  involved 
in  playing  cards  or  looking  at  a  moving  picture  show,  which  are  fair 
types  of  intellectual  and  sensory  play,  are  of  no  value  in  promoting 
bodily  vigor  and  sound  health,  which  it  is  one  of  the  purposes  of 
education  to  secure.  Sensory  play  in  particular  is  apt  to  be  too  much 
on  the  passive  order  to  be  largely  educative. 

Play  Relative  to  Others. — The  plays  indicated  by  the  second 
group  on  the  chart  are  important  because  they  may  stimulate  one 
to  act  when  his  individual  impulses  fall  short  and  because  it  is  a 
necessary  part  of  one's  education  to  learn  how  to  act  in  association 
with  others.  The  impulses  that  come  in  here  to  reinforce  and  control 
those  giving  rise  to  individual  play  are  related  to  the  fundamental 


34  THE    TEACHING    OF    I'l.AV 

instincts  of  imitation,  companionship,  fightin<i,  and  nialinu.  Imita- 
tive play  may  be  illnstrafed  by  playinji;  horse  or  (h-amatizin^  a  story; 
social  play  by  visiting  and  talkin<i:  with  one's  friends;  fi<;,htin<>  play 
by  boxing,  basel)all,  and  all  competitive  sports;  mating  play  by  the 
so-called  "social  dance."  There  is  no  distinct  line  between  these 
kinds  of  play;  in  fact  all  four  elements  may  be  present  in  the  same 
play,  as  often  seen  in  a  card  game  or  a  skating  j)arty.  In  classifying 
plays  we  put  each  under  the  head  where  lies  the  predominating  in- 
terest for  the  most  of  the  players. 

I.MITATIVE  Play. — The  imitatix  e  impulse  is  an  important  source 
of  i)lay  activity,  partly  because  seeing  someone  else  do  a  thing  is  apt 
to  suggest  new  ideas  for  individual  play  but  also  becau.se  of  a  separate 
and  strong  impulse  to  join  with  others  and  do  what  they  do.  This 
impulse  to  imitate  explains  why  children  j)lay  house,  play  school, 
play  store,  and  in  a  similar  way  dramati/e  all  kinds  of  activities  of 
men,  animals,  and  machinery.  An  action  l)egun  in  this  way  as  an 
imitation  of  some  one  else  is  often  contiinied  for  a  long  time  as  an 
imitation  of  .self  and  may  develop  into  an  uncon.scious  liabit.  The 
imitative  impulse  is  strongest  below  the  age  of  ten,  but  it  never 
wholly  disappears.  The.se  plays  in  older  people  are  apt  to  take  the 
form  of  fashions  and  customs  that  are  followed,  not  because  they  have 
any  s])ecial  merit  or  value  but  becau.se  others  do  it.  Smoking  will 
illustrate  this  for  men  and  the  remodeling  of  hats  and  gowns  long 
before  they  are  worn  out  will  illustrate  the  same  thing  for  women. 
A  very  large  percentage  of  pla\'  habits,  both  beneficial  and  injurious, 
are  formed  by  imitation. 

Social  Play. — Calling,  visiting,  picnics,  i)an(|uets,  and  recep- 
tions are  typical  social  plays,  which  depend  for  their  attraction 
chiefly  on  the  desire  for  comj)anionsliip  and  the  enjoyment  t)f  "team 
play.  '  The  latter  leads  one  at  times  to  sacrifice  some  of  his  own 
preferences  and  favorite  forms  of  play  and  to  subordinate  himself  to 
another  who  is  tem{)orarily  recognized  as  a  leader,  in  order  to  help 
form  a  more  comprehensive  scheme  of  play  in  which  each  one  has 
some  part.  Team  })lay  is  prominent  in  all  highly  organized  play, 
such  as  card  parties,  drills,  debates,  and  the  more  complex  ball  games. 
Desire  for  comi)anionship  is  strong  at  all  ages,  but  enjoyment  of 
team  i)lay  develoj)s  slowly  at  the  period  of  adolescence  and  needs 
encouragement.  Since  social  progress  and  j)rosperity  dej)end  so 
much  on  team  work,  team  play  is  especially  important  in  the  educa- 
tion of  citizens.  Children  over  ten  often  form  groups  or  teams,  more 
often  called  "gangs"  or  "cliques"  or  "the  bunch,"  each  with  a 
recognized  leader,  the  grouj)  acting  as  a  center  for  most  of  their  play 
activities. 

FiOHTiXG  Play. — Groos  considers  the  fighting  instinct  as  the 
origin  of  rivalry,  which  serves  as  a  strong  iinj)u!se  in  games  and  con- 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  35 

tests.  This  instinct  in  its  lowest  form  gives  rise  to  a  desire  to  injure 
others;  in  a  higher  and  more  intelhgent  stage  there  is  instead  a  desire 
to  defeat,  excel,  or  surpass  others;  in  its  highest  form  it  gives  the 
desire  to  excel  our  own  previous  performances  and  thus  stimulates 
self -improvement.  The  desire  to  achieve  superiority  and  the  closely 
related  desire  to  exhibit  superiority  are  prominent  in  youth  and  usu- 
ally persist  through  life.  They  furnish  the  strongest  incentives  we 
can  use  to  stimulate  the  average  youth  to  do  his  best  and  to  develop 
and  care  for  himself.  Desire  to  win  superiority  is  always  a  good 
thing  to  encourage,  but  the  mistaken  idea  that  it  is  sufficient  to  appear 
superior  or  to  get  the  name  of  it  leads  to  dishonesty  in  play.  Clear 
thinking  at  this  point  as  to  what  rivalry  is  for  and  what  aims  are 
legitimate  in  a  player  will  go  far  to  prevent  wrong  habits.  Free  and 
full  discussion  of  rules  and  points  in  question  by  players  under  the 
guidance  of  the  teacher  but  not  too  strongly  dominated  by  anyone 
is  desirable  because  it  leads  to  clear  thinking  on  fundamental  princi- 
ples of  conduct.  Children  in  the  mass  can  be  trusted  to  favor  a 
square  deal,  but  they  often  need  guidance  of  the  wisest  sort  that  they 
may  conclude  correctly  as  to  what  constitutes  a  square  deal  in  a 
certain  case. 

Mating  Play. — The  mating  impulse  gives  rise  to  a  variety  of 
activities  related  to  courtship  and  marriage  and  sometimes  known 
as  love  plays.  All  plays  in  which  members  of  the  two  sexes  are  paired 
off  in  couples  who  are  partners  may  be  said  to  involve  this  element 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  and  when  in  the  mind  of  any  player  the 
pairing  off  of  the  sexes  is  the  factor  of  most  importance  in  making 
the  play  enjoyable  it  is  for  that  player  a  love  play.  The  mating 
impulse  undoubtedly  gives  rise  to  the  custom  of  having  ladies  escorted 
to  places  of  amusement  by  gentlemen,  and  that  of  always  dancing 
certain  forms  of  dance  in  couples.  Some  authorities  put  in  this  group 
also  those  cases  of  close  friendship  between  "chums,"  who,  although 
of  like  sex,  act  much  like  lovers  and  take  great  pleasure  in  confiding 
their  secret  thoughts  and  emotions  to  each  other.  The  typical  love 
plays  are  those  of  married  couples  who  live  happily  together  and  find 
constant  pleasure  in  close  companionship.  They  are  as  natural  to 
adult  life  as  the  imitative  plays  are  to  childhood.  Their  excellence 
at  an  appropriate  stage  of  development  is  no  reason  for  introducing 
them  too  soon.  Young  boys  and  girls  in  dancing  school,  learning  to 
ape  the  manners  and  play  habits  of  ladies  and  gentlemen  of  marriagea- 
ble age,  at  a  period  when  nature  has  intended  them  to  play  tag  games 
and  climb  trees,  prove  the  ignorance  of  their  parents.  So  the  forma- 
tion of  fraternities  and  sororities  by  young  pupils  of  the  high  school 
instead  of  ball  teams,  and  their  taking  up  social  dancing  in  place 
of  outdoor  sports  proves  the  lack  of  opportunity  and  encourage- 
ment for  the  kind  of  play  their  stage  of  development  naturally 
demands. 


36 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY 


What  Plays  are  Best? — Play  as  a  i'cahirc  of  (Mliicatioii  does 
not  include  all  possible  forms,  for  excellent  reasons.  Sonic  kinds  of 
play,  such  as  the  use  of  drugs  and  f>anil)linf>',  are  injurious  to  the 
players;  some  kinfls,  like  the  matin<>;  plays,  are  not  suited  to  iK'ojjle 
of  school  age;  some  others,  like  many  of  the  typical  sensory  |>lays, 
are  less  useful  than  others  that  arc  just  as  enjoyahle,  and  so  the  latter 
are  chosen  for  their  greater  cfHciency.  Playground  experts  are  agreed 
that  the  best  plays  for  educational  ])urposes  are  those  well-balanced 
combinations  oT  activity  usually  called  '^motor,"  interest  being 
stimulated  both  by  the  im})ulse  to  be  active  and  by  social  imj^ulses. 

Iiidi\idual    activity;      main    interest     in 

iiioretitctit. 
Dramatic  j)lay;    main  interest  in  acting 
Playground  activities         out  a  .sfori/. 

Dances;    main  interest  in  r/n/flnii. 
Competili\('     play;       main     interest     in 

rirdlrij. 


EnrcATiONAL  Plays. — The  plays  used  chiefly  in  education  fall 
naturally  into  the  four  grou])s  shown  in  the  chart.  The  basis  of  this 
(Hvision  is  the  j)resencc  of  four  chi(>f  interests:  the  interest  in  move^ 
Uient,  in  imitation,  in  rhythm,  and  in  rivalry.  The  interest  in  move- 
ment is  strong  in  both  sexes  and  at  all  ages,  except  when  lost  by  per- 
sistent disuse.  The  imitative  impulse,  as  we  have  seen  before,  is 
strongest  before  the  age  of  ten,  so  that  the  story  plays  are  i)articu- 
larly  adapted  to  young  children.  Rhythm  begins  to  appeal  to  children 
between  five  and  seven  and  the  interest  j)ersists  in  girls  as  far  as 
middle  life;  boys  tire  of  it  after  a  few  years  and  take  up  ci\alry  as 
the  ruling  interest.  Rivalry  is  prominent  in  both  sexes  from  ten  to 
twenty,  but  above  twelve  or  fourteen  the  boys  are  especiall\'  inter- 
ested in  it.  Of  these  four  types  of  play,  therefore,  it  may  b(>  said  that 
the  first  appeals  to  everybody,  the  second  especiall\  to  the  xoiing 
child,  the  third  is  a  special  favorite  of  girls  and  the  fourth  is  a  >i)ccial 
favorite  of  boys. 

Movement  Plays. — It  was  jjointed  out  many  years  ago  by 
(lulick  that  bodily  movements  used  in  play  may  all  be  grouped  under 
locomotion,  which  may  be  illustrated  by  walking.  jum|)ing.  swimming, 
skating,  dancing,  and  canoeing, — and  handling  ol)jccts,  illustrated 
by  throwing,  catching,  and  striking.  Social  enjoyments  often  add 
to  the  satisfaction  received  in  this  type  of  play  and  rivalry  may  enter 
into  it,  yet  in  the  main  it  is  stinuilatcd  chiefly  l)y  the  interest  in 
bodily  movement.  Outdoor  sports,  except  for  boys  at  the  age  when 
rivalry  is  the  chief  interest,  belong  here;  also  such  indoor  sports  as 
exercises  on  bars  and  rings  and  miscellaneous  exercises  in  handling 
balls  and  bean  bags;    at  particular  seasons  of  the  year  certain  kinds 


\ 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  37 

of  plays  of  this  class  have  special  interest,  as  in  case  of  tops  and  mar- 
bles in  early  spring,  plays  with  a  baseball  in  summer,  with  a  football 
in  the  fall,  and  with  sleds  and  skates  in  winter. 

Story  Plays. — The  interest  here  lies  not  so  much  in  the  form 
of  movement  as  in  the  exercise  of  imitation  and  imagination  involved 
in  dramatizjiig  a  stojyy.  ^uch  play  is  often  entirely  spontaneous,  the 
story  being  made  up  by  the  players  as  the  play  goes  on,  as  in  playing 
school,  store,  or  house;  sometimes  the  children  prefer  to  follow  a 
more  formal  story  whicli  is  acted  out  over  and  over  again,  as  in  "Jack 
be  Nimble"  or  "Old  Witch."  Following  the  suggestion  offered  by 
these  spontaneous  plays,  teachers  have  composed  story  plays  drama- 
tizing various  things  they  wish  to  teach.  Teachers  of  physical  train- 
ing often  compose  lessons  in  gymnastics  in  story  form,  thus  bringing 
the  play  spirit  into  exercises  whose  purpose  and  value  the  children 
are  not  able  to  appreciate.  These  lessons  dramatize  the  varied 
activities  of  the  farmer,  the  life  habits  of  animals,  the  movements 
"of  machinery,  or  stories  of  any  interesting  nature  that  will  call  for 
the  bodily  movements  the  teacher  wants. 

Rhythm  Plays. — In  this  group  the  interest  centers  in  performing 
bodily  niovements  in  unison  with  music.  Song  plays,  such  as 
"London  Bridge  is  Falling  Down"  and  "The  Farmer  in  the  Dell;" 
gymnastic  dances,  such  as  the  "Irish  Lilt"  and  the  "Sailors'  Horn- 
pipe;" folk  dances,  such  as  the  "Klappdans"  and  the  "Weaving 
Dance;"  and  wand  and  club  exercises  with  musical  accompaniment, 
belong  here.  Children  begin  rhythm  plays  a  little  later  than  the  story 
plays.  They  form  a  large  part  of  the  active  plays  of  girls  and  women 
and  a  relatively  small  part  of  those  of  boys  and  men.  Young  men 
enjoy  social  dances  but  it  is  the  companionship  of  young  women 
rather  than  the  rhythmic  movement  that  forms  the  chief  attraction, 
as  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  men  never  practice  the  rhythmic  plays 
when  alone.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  dances  are  usually  rhythm 
plays  for  women  and  love  plays  for  men,  although  there  are  indi- 
vidual exceptions  to  the  rule. 

Rivalry'  Plays.  In  these  plays  the  main  interest  lies  in  the 
desire  to  excel.  Such  contests  as  the  track_aiid  field  meets  of  college 
students,  the  relay  races,  and  all  the  tag  games  and  ball  games  belong 
here.  Besides  the  great  stimulus  rivalry  gives  to  active  play  it  also 
gives  a  chance  for  moral  trainin^through  the  constant  occurrence  of 
situations  requiring  fairness  and  considerate  treatment  of  opponents. \/ 
It  is  useful  to  distinguish  three  forms  of  rivalry  in  play:  (1)  the  simple 
contests,  where  all  the  players  do  identically  the  same  thing  under 
identical  conditions,  as  nearly  as  possible,  to  find  whicli  excels  in  a 
particular  "event;"  this  is  illustrated  by  a  100  yard  dash  or  a  con- 
test in  high  jump;    (2)  relay  contests,  in  which  all  the  players  in  a 


38 


THE   TEACHING    OF    PLAY 


team  or  fjroiip  do  the  same  thiiifi  in  succession  with  the  object  of 
completing  the  rehiy  in  less  time  than  other  comix'ling  groups;  and 
(8)  games,  in  which  each  side  tries  both  to  accomjjlish  an  object 
specitied  in  the  rules  and  to  prevent  the  other  side  from  doing  the  same 
tiling,  as  illustrated  in  teiuiis,  basketball,  and  prison  base.  It  is  i)lain 
that  the  games  ))ermit  more  freedom  of  action  on  the  |)art  of  i)layers 
than  either  contests  or  relays  and  usually  recpiire  a  greater  variety 
of  skill  and  more  exercise  of  judgment;  games  also  permit  a  certain 
degree  of  deception  and  trickery  to  catch  the  opponents  unawares. 
It  is  akso  to  be  noticed  that  in  contests  and  relays  a  player  need  not 
pay  any  attention  to  his  opponents  and  is  not  permitted  to  interfere 
with  them  in  any  way,  while  in  games  he  must  watch  his  o|)ponents 
to  see  what  to  do  and  it  is  a  ])art  of  his  business  to  interfere  w  itli  their 
play,  under  certain  limitations. 

Simple  Contests  and  Relays. — Simple  contests  may  be  be- 
tween individuals  or  between  groups;  in  contests  between  grou|)s 
the  players  sometimes  take  i)art  in  a  mass,  as  in  Tug  of  War,  or  they 
may  take  part  as  individuals  and  the  .scores  made  by  the  individuals 
combined  in  some  way  to  give  a  score  for  the  group.  There  are  sev- 
eral ways  of  scoring  a  group  contest  which  will  be  taken  up  in  detail 
in  a  later  chapter.  Relays  are  more  complex  forms  of  contest  be- 
tween groups.  Mere  the  players  of  each  side  take  ])art  in  turn  so  us 
to  sum  uj)  the  scores  nuide  by  the  ijidividuals.  The  plan  aj)|)lies  best 
to  speed  contests  in  locomotion  and  handling  objects,  such  as  Indian 
club  and  potato  races.  In  group  contests  in  jumping  and  weight 
events  it  is  easier  to  have  the  i)layers  take  ])art  as  individuals  and 
then  to  get  the  grouj)  score  by  arithmetic. 


Rivalry  i)lays 


Simple  contests 
Relays 


Games  of 


between  individuals 
between  groujis 

goal 

tag 

baseball 

tennis 

basketball 

hockey' 

football 

personal  combat 


Klnds  of  Games.^ — It  will  be  noticed  that  the  word  "game"  is 
being  used  here  in  a  nnich  narrower  sense  than  that  in  which  many 
writers  use  it.  For  example,  in  common  con\ersation  and  in  l)ooks 
on  i)rimary  teaching  the  term  is  used  to  mean  any  kind  of  organized 
play.  Thus  the  story  plays  of  little  children  are  called  "dramatic 
games"  and  song  plays  as  "singing  games;"   the  iiiternational  contest 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  39 

in  track  and  field  events  is  commonly  called  the  "Olympic  games." 
It  is  the  belief  of  the  writer  that  in  the  growth  of  the  language  we  are 
coming  to  use  the  word  only  in  the  narrower  sense  which  it  has  in  the 
above  chart,  to  refer  to  this  one  class  of  rivalry  plays. 

There  seem  to  be  eight  distinct  types  of  games.  In  the  simplest 
kind  the  play  centers  in  a  single  idea, — to  get  possession  of  a  goal,  as 
illustrated  in  "Puss  in  the  Corner."  The  tag  games  have  as  the  main 
interest  the  idea  of  chase  and  capture,  with  which  the  idea  of  a  goal  is 
often  combined  as  a  minor  feature.  Games  of  personal  combat  are  ex- 
emplified by  boxing,  wrestling,  and  several  group  games  of  like  nature. 
It  is  more  usual  to  speak  of  these  as  contests,  but  they  plainly  have  the 
character  of  games.  In  the  baseball  type  of  games  we  have  the  simple 
ideas  of  goal  and  tag  with  the  added  features  of  throwing,  catching, 
and  batting  a  ball,  and  scores  are  made  by  running  around  a  series 
of  goals  or  bases  without  being  tagged.  The  length  of  a  game  here 
is  determined  by  the  number  of  players  who  have  been  tagged  and 
thus  "put  out."  Tennis  games  have  nothing  whatever  in  common 
with  the  simple  goal  and  tag  games,  but  are  proliably  descended  from 
the  ball  games  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.  Scores  are  made 
by  batting  the  ball  so  that  the  opposite  side  cannot  return  it  as  pre- 
scribed by  the  rules;  the  game  ends  when  one  side  attains  a  certain 
score.  The  last  three  types  of  games  are  closely  related  and  are  all 
played  with  the  object  of  advancing  the  ball  and  finally  sending  it 
into  the  opponents'  goal;  the  goal  here  has  no  resemblance  to  the 
goals  of  preceding  games  but  represents  the  gate  or  portal  of  a  walled 
city  which  the  attacking  party  is  storming.  The  length  of  game  here 
is  the  time  decided  upon  beforehand,  without  regard  to  the  progress 
made  in  the  play.  The  hockey,  football,  and  basketball  games  differ 
chiefly  in  the  size  of  the  ball,  the  way  it  is  handled,  and  in  rules  that 
vary  because  of  these  elementary  differences  in  play.  They  are 
enough  alike  to  be  put  in  one  class,  but  each  has  so  many  minor  games 
related  to  it  that  the  division  seems  advisable.  There  are  a  few  games 
that  do  not  fit  into  any  of  these  groups  and  some  plays  that  are  inter- 
mediate between  contests  and  games.  These  will  be  noted  in  proper 
order.  .  . 


Chapter  Five 

INDIVIDUAL  M()\  EMEXT  PLAYS 


Most  of  the  ])lay  Jictivities  used  for  educative  j)uri)()ses  lia\e  as 
their  chief  interest  some  rehition  between  the  i)hiyers,  as  in  ta,i>-  ^anies, 
hall  iiames.  card  ^anies,  and  dances.  Siini)ler  than  any  of  these  in 
theory  and  practice  and  tlierefore  more  elementary  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  teacher  is  the  group  of  plays  in  which  bodily  movement 
is  itself  the  chief  interest  and  incentive  to  action.  Such  are  walking, 
running,  skating,  swimming,  shooting,  club  swinging,  etc.  Any 
movement  of  this  group  may  form  a  i)art  of  a  play  of  another  kind, 
with  rivalry  or  some  other  social  interest  as  the  main  incentive;  still 
there  always  has  been  and  jirobably  always  will  be  a  large  amount  of 
play  in  which  peojjle  walk  for  the  sake  of  walking,  run  for  the  sake 
of  running,  and  climb  for  the  sake  of  climbing.  While  the  interest  in 
play  of  this  kind  never  is  apt  to  be  so  intense  as  in  some  others  yet 
there  is  interest  enough  in  it  for  i)eoj)le  of  all  ages  and  both  sexes  to 
give  it  a  place  in  the  gymnasium  and  on  the  playground. 

The  bodily  movements  of  play  form  two  natural  divisions:  loco- 
motion and  handling  objects.  Locomotion  is  mainly  work  for  the 
lower  limbs  with  arms  and  trunk  used  incidentally;  handling  objects 
is  mainly  work  for  the  arms  with  truid-;  and  lower  limbs  used  inci- 
dentally. Following  the  inherited  acti\ities  of  primiti\e  life,  i)lay 
does  not  u.se  separate  movements  of  the  head  and  trunk,  and  uses 
the  arms  and  legs  only  for  the  purposes  just  mentioned,  with  the 
exception  of  poses  and  gestures  used  in  <h-;ini:itic  |)lays  mid  daiice.s. 


Walking,  inchiding  strolling,  hiking,  etc. 

Running,  including  sprinting,  lini-dliug,  skip- 
ping, etc. 

Juin])ing,  including  high,  broad,  ro|)c  jump, 
ho])l)iiig,  \aulting,  etc. 

Dancing,  inchiding  march,  polka,  scliot tische, 
waltz,  jig,  etc. 

Climbing,  with  or  without  ii>c  of  tlic  feet. 

Swimming,  iiicliKJing  l)r('a>l  sl  i-okc  s'mIc  stroke, 
diving,  etc. 

Using  modified  shoes,  such  as  skates,  skees, 
snow  shoes,  stilts,  etc. 

Using  a  vehicle,  such  as  a  bic,\-clc,  canoe,  boat, 
sled,  swing,  teeter,  etc. 


Types  of  locomotion 


40 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  41 

Definitions. — Physical  education  recognizes  eight  types  of 
locomotion,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  chart.  Walking  differs 
from  running  in  having  one  foot  on  the  ground  all  the  time,  while  in 
running  the  body  is  tossed  into  the  air  at  each  step  and  is  unsupported 
for  a  part  of  the  way.  Strolling  is  the  leisurely,  languid  style  of  walk 
and  hiking  is  the  rapid,  hustling  kind.  Sprinting  is  running  as  fast 
as  possible  for  a  short  distance,  without  trying  to  reserve  any  power; 
hurdling  is  running  and  jumping  over  obstacles  called  hurdles,  which 
are  placed  at  regular  intervals  of  the  course.  Skipping  is  a  variation 
of  running  in  which  each  step  is  preceded  by  a  quick  hop. 

Jumping  differs  from  running  in  not  being  necessarily  rhythmical ; 
a  single  step  in  a  run  would  be  one  style  of  jump.  The  idea  of  a  jump 
is  a  spring  from  one  or  both  feet;  the  high  jump  is  taken  to  see  how 
great  a  height  can  be  passed  and  the  broad  jump  to  see  how  great  a 
distance.  The  rope  jump  is  any  style  of  jump  allowing  a  swinging 
rope  to  pass  under  the  feet  while  they  are  off  the  ground.  Hopping 
is  springing  off  one  foot  and  alighting  on  the  same  foot,  without 
touching  the  other  to  the  ground;  vaulting  is  jumping  with  the  aid 
of  the  hands,  which  may  be  placed  on  a  fence  or  bar  or  other  sta- 
tionary object,  or  a  pole  may  be  carried  in  the  hands  and  used  to 
vault  with. 

Dancing  is  rhythmic  locomotion  of  a  form  designed  to  accompany 
a  certain  style  or  piece  of  music.  Climbing  may  be  done  upon  ladders, 
ropes,  poles,  or  any  support  strong  enough  to  sustain  the  weight  of 
the  body  so  that  it  can  be  lifted  in  part  at  least  by  the  arms.  Swim- 
ming is  locomotion  on  or  through  the  water  by  the  force  of  the  body's 
own  movements;  diving  is  entering  the  water  head  first  by  a  sj^ring 
from  the  bank  or  some  object  upon  it.  Among  modified' shoes,  ice 
skates  and  roller  skates  are  the  most  popular  examples.  Physical 
education  recognizes  locomotion  with  the  vehicles  mentioned  and 
with  others  in  which  there  is  active  bodily  movement;  locomotion 
by  means  of  cars,  automobiles,  aeroplanes,  and  carriages  is  too  pas- 
sive in  character  to  belong  in  a  system  of  educative  play. 

Throwing,  which  includes  tossing,  pitching,  roll 
ing,  bowling,  putting,  slinging,  etc. 
Handling  Objects  <j  Catching,  with  hand,  mit,  glove,  crosse,  etc. 

Striking  with  bat,  club,  stick,  mallet,  racket,  foot, 
hand,  etc. 

To  throw,  to  catch,  and  to  strike  are  the  three  most  common 
types  of  handling  objects,  and  several  variations  of  each  are  shown  in 
the  chart. 

With  regard  to  the  teaching  of  play  of  this  group,  it  is  evident 
that  several  of  the  forms  of  activity  cannot  be  used  regularly  by  the 
teacher  in  the  gymnasium  or  on  the  playground  but  can  be  encour- 
aged and  promoted  outside.    Such  are  the  following: 


4'2  thf:  teaching  of  play 

Canoeing,  7,  13*  Skating,  5,  7,  8,  10 

Crimping,  7  Skeeing,  5,  8 

Coasting,  o.  7,  8  Stilts,  7 

Rowing,  7,  10  Swiiiiining,  (>.  7.  10 

Hopping,  nuiiiing,  and  .ski])piiig,  can  be  used  witli  large  groups 
and  jumping  with  small  grouj)s;  jumping  rope  (4)  is  es])ecially  suita- 
l)le  for  small  groups.  Running  and  skipping  can  he  done  in  spiral 
and  other  interesting  figures.  The  following  can  he  used  in  the  school- 
room: changing  seats,  4;  vaulting  seats,  4;  tossing  wands,  4; 
winding  the  horn,  0;    serpentine  maze,  3. 

In  handling  ohjects  there  are  many  varieties  of  bodily  movement 
that  lend  themselves  readily  to  play  with  rather  large  grou|)s  of 
children.  Among  these  are  passing  or  throwing  and  catching  bean 
bags,  medicine  halls,  basketballs,  volley  halls,  indoor  hasel)alls,  and 
tennis  halls,  and  also  i)assing  ohjects  like  clubs  or  dumhl)ells,  that 
cannot  he  thrown  and  caught  from  one  to  another.  The  class  may 
be  arranged  in  circle  form  and  the  bean  bags  or  other  objects  passed 
or  thrown  either  in  regidar  or  irregular  fashion  from  one  to  another 
as  the  teacher  directs;    the  following  are  of  this  kind: 

Ball  Passing,  2*  Circle  Ball,  4,  12 

Bean  Bag  Circle  Toss,  4  Medicine  Ball  Play,  2 

Bean  Bags  in  a  Circle,  1  Object  Passing,  2 

Pass  Bags,  9 

Sometimes  it  is  more  convenient  to  lia\'e  the  i)upils  standing  by 
the  desks  in  the  schoolroom  or  in  a  similar  fornuition  elsewhere,  with 
one  or  more  leaders  who  throw  the  balls  to  various  |)upils  in  turn,  as 
in  the  following: 

Catch  Ball,  3  School  liall,  5 

Double  Pass,  1  Toss  Ball,  4 

Another  plan  is  to  ha\'c  as  many  or  half  as  many  balls  or  hags  as 
there  are  ])Upils  and  ha\'e  them  handle  the  l)alls  i!idi\i(lually.  either 
in  rhythm,  or  not,  as  tlu'  teacher  directs.  Indixiduals  toss  or  l)ound 
the  halls  and  catch  them  in  various  ways  or  toss  or  bound  them  to 
partners.  Many  varieties  of  such  play  are  easy  to  invent  and  to 
teach.     Tiic  following  are  forms  that  have  been  used: 

H;.ll  Drill,  13  Preliminiirv  Hall.  1.  4 

Hand  Ball  Drill.  4 

Among  large  groups  of  cliildrrn  in  the  lower  three  or  four  grades 
there  are  apt  to  be  a  few  who  would  rather  play  such  plays  as  these 
singly  or  in  pairs  or  snudl  groups  instead  of  taking  part  in  the  more 


*The  nunihcrs  refer  to  I5il)li()f;r;ipliy  at  end  of  volvime,  page  110. 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  43 

highly  organized  phiy  of  the  large  group.  It  is  well  to  watch  for  such 
children  and  give  them  the  chance  to  choose  the  simpler  plays  while 
the  others  are  playing  together,  rather  than  to  force  them  into  the 
play  they  care  less  about.  When  the  time  comes  for  them  to  take  up 
the  team  plays  they  will  do  it  naturally  if  opportunity  is  offered. 

In  teaching  such  plays  to  large  groups  it  is  important  for  the 
teacher  to  be  very  clear  in  giving  directions,  show  a  lively  interest, 
and  keep  the  play  going  continuously  without  dragging.  Where 
rivalry  is  not  involved  the  interest  and  success  of  the  activity  depends 
largely  on  the  manner  of  the  teacher  and  her  skill  in  directing  the 
play  and  keeping  it  moving. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  Write  out  a  definite  plan  for  plays  of  this  group  that  will  be 
good  to  keep  a  third  grade  of  40  pupils  busy  and  interested  in  the 
schoolroom.  Specify  plays  to  be  used,  apparatus  needed,  and  direc- 
tions to  the  pupils. 

2.  Same  as  above  for  a  second  grade  of  25  pupils  who  are  to 
play  in  an  open  hall  in  the  school  building. 

3.  Same  as  above  for  a  first  grade  playing  on  the  school  ground. 

4.  Same  as  3  for  a  fourth  grade. 


Chapter  Six 

STORY  I'LAVS  AND  RHVIIBI   PLAYS 

STORY    PLAYS 

The  simplest  exain|)le  of  plays  of  this  kind  is  the  well  known 
play  of  "Follow  the  Leader"  (1,"  8,  4,  .5,  7,  12,  U),  in  which  the 
teacher  or  a  pupil  performs  a  series  of  exercises  and  the  memhers  of 
the  class  imitate.  Sometimes  this  is  done  in  standin<f  })()sition  hut 
more  often  while  marching  in  single  file  with  the  leader  at  the  head. 
The  teacher  can  act  as  leader  enough  of  the  time  to  suggest  and  teach 
the  forms  of  movement  she  especially  wishes  to  have  made  and  the 
general  manner  of  doing  it;  frequent  changes  of  leaders  sustain 
interest  and  gives  chance  for  originality.  Sliglil  \ariations  of  this 
play  are  " I  Saw, "  1'2;  "Old  Woman  from  the  Wood,"  4;  and  "The 
Wee  Hologna  Man,"  4.  Simple  dramatizations  of  occui)ations, 
selected  from  industry,  nature,  etc.,  give  teachers  opportunity  to 
give  gynnnistic  exercises  whose  real  purpose  the  pui)ils  are  too  young 
to  appreciate  and  which  they  will  not  therefore  ixM-form  with  interest 
and  efficiency  unless  a  dramatic  meaning  is  given  them.  The  follow- 
ing are  examples: 

()( (TPATioNs  Dramatized 

Aeroplane,  LS  Cutting  (irass,  lo 

At  the  Beach,  l.S  Engineer,  13 

.Viitumn  in  the  Woods,  14                   Kx])ressnnui,  12 

Automobile,  l.S  Fanner's  (larden,  l.'J 

Baseball  (iame,  b!  l'\irmers  (ietting  Ready,  13 

Birds  Learning  to  Fl\ ,  14                  Farmer  an<l  Crow,  12 

Blue  Berrying,  13  Firemen,  13 

Blacksmith,  13  Fishing,  13 

Building  Bon-Fire,  13  Flying  Kites,  13 

liuilding  Fire  in  Sto\e,  13  Fox  and  Ral)l)il,  12 

Bu>  ing  a  Lock,  4  Fox  and  S((uiirel,  4 

Car  Ride,  13  (ioing  for  Christmas  Trees,  13 

Caught  in  a  Storm,  13  Hot   liall,  12 

Chicken  Market,  4  llur(l_\-  Curd.x,  13 

Christmas  T(jys,  13  Indians,  1.3 

Circus,  18  L-oning,  13 

Coal  Mine,  13  Jack  Frost,  13 

Coasting,  13  .lack  OT^antern.  1.3 

Coming  to  this  Counlrx',  1.3  liincoln's  Tlome,  13 

Clean  House,  13  *                       Making  Cider,  13 

Cowboys,  13>  Making  Hay,  1.3 

44 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  45 

Making  Ice  Cream,  13  Repairing  Streets,  13 

May  Queen,  13  Riding  Bicycle,  12 

Merry  Go  Round,  13  Ringmaster,  4 

Motor  Boating,  13  Sculptor,  1,  3,  12 

Motor  Cycle,  13  Soldiers,  13 

Moving,  13  Snow  Fort,  13 

Newsboy,  13  Snow  Man,  13 

Nutting,  13  Snow  Play,  14 

On  a  Farm,  13  Swimming,  13 

Picking  Spring  Flowers,  13  Thanksgiving  Pies,  13 

Picnic,  14  Trees  in  a  Storm,  14 

Pilgrims,  13  Trip  to  Belle  Isle,  13 

Playing  Horse,  12  Valentine's  Day,  13 

Playing  in  Snow,  13  Walk  in  the  Orchard,  14 
Policeman  at  Street  Crossing,  13     Washing,  13 

Putting  in  Coal,  13  Weathercock,  4,  12 

Railroad  Train,  4  Wind  Storm,  12 

This  extensive  list  is  given,  not  only  as  material  that  can  be 
used,  but  as  suggestion  as  to  how  an  almost  indefinite  number  of 
other  similar  plays  can  be  devised,  to  meet  the  conditions  of  the  school 
and  to  carry  out  the  ideas  of  the  teacher.  In  planning  and  teaching 
such  plays  care  must  be  taken  first  of  all  that  the  children  know  some- 
thing of  the  activity  imitated  before  an  attempt  is  made  to  dramatize 
it.  Teachers  often  take  the  children  to  see  certain  occupations  in 
preparation  for  the  dramatization.  When  a  play  is  complex  it  is  best 
to  teach  easy  and  simple  parts  of  it  first,  adding  others  and  thus 
gradually  developing  the  play  as  the  children  become  familiar  with 
the  details.  The  following  differ  from  the  preceding  in  dramatizing 
stories  or  rhymes  that  are  common  among  children,  and  may  arouse 
lively  interest,  especially  in  those  who  know  them  well : 

Stories  and  Rhymes  Dramatized 

Bunch  of  Ivy,  4  Lady  of  the  Land,  4 

Geo.  Washington's  Cherry  Tree,  Mother,  the  Pot  Boils  Over,  4 

13  '  Mother,  May  I  Go  Out  to  Play,  4 

Gypsy,  4  Old  Buzzard,  4 

How  Many  Miles  to  Babylon,  4  Round  and  Round  Went  the  Gal- 
Jack  Be  Nimble,  4,  12  lant  Ship,  4 

Mari  Hofer  has  arranged  several  pieces  of  music  to  accompany 
the  movements  dramatizing  various  things  of  interest  to  children; 
the  following  are  typical  examples  (Reference  11): 

Barnyard  People  Game  of  Tag  Rough  Riders 

Brownies  Jack  in  the  Box  See  Saw 

Dance  of  the  Bears       Playing  Golf  Skaters 


46  THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY 


Questions  and  Exercises 

1.  Select  from  the  above  list  of  story  ])lays  one  suited  to 
autumn,  and  prej)ar(>  definitely  a  method  and  |)lan  of  teaching  it  to 
a  first  grade. 

'2.  Select  a  play  suited  to  the  winter  season  and  plan  the 
teaching. 

3.  Select  a  play  suited  to  spring  and  plan  the  teaching. 

4.  Select  a  j)lay  suited  for  summer  and  |)lan  the  teaching. 

.).  Make  up  an  original  story  i)lay  that  will  involve  running 
or  skipi)ing.  sidewi.se  bending,  balancing  on  tiptoes,  head  bending 
backward  and  arm  raising  upward.  Write  out  the  play  and  i)rei)are 
to  teach  it. 


Song  Plays  and  Dances 

I  Song  j)lays  no  doubt  arose  as  a  means  of  carrying  on  rhythm 

plays  without  the  aid  of  musical  instruments.  Chihlren  and  espe- 
cially girls  find  great  pleasure  in  these  i)lays.  The  imitative  feature 
is  prominent,  the  leader  having  in  some  cases  the  same  part  to  play 
as  in  "Follow  the  Leader."     The  following  are  among  the  best: 

Adam  Did  Have  Seven  Sons,  3, 12  Mulberry  Bu.sh,  4,  .>,  12 
Boat  Song.  12  Rabbit  in  tlu^  Hollow,  .5 

Did  You  Ever  See  a  La.s.sie,  4,  12     See  Saw,  12 
Farmer  in  the  Dell.  4.  .),  12  Soldier  Boy,  12 

King  of  France,  4,  12  Ten  Little  Indians,  12 

Let  the  F'eet  Go  Tramp,  4  When  I  was  a  Shoemaker,  12 

London  Bridge,  3,  4,  o,  12  Yankee  Doodle,  13 

Looby  Loo,  4,  12 

It  is  a  distinct  advantage  to  have  musical  accompaniment  by 
an  in.strument  along  with  the  ^song  when  it  is  jjo.ssible.  To  teach  the 
song  the  teacher  .should  plan  .so  as  to  get  the  words  memorized  (piiekly 
and  easily  as  far  as  is  necessary  and  either  sing  it  for  the  children  or 
have  it  played.  The  play  should  actually  begin  as  soon  as  possible 
and  later  parts  be  introduced  gradually.  The  meaning  and  spirit  of 
the  i)lay  should  be  shown  plainly  and  the  idea  clearly  brought  out. 
The  following  gymnastic  and  folk  dances  have  become  i)opular  as 
plays  of  this  class: 

Ace  of  Diamonds,  1!)  Chaminade,  24 

American  Beauty,  23  Csardas,  1(> 

Barbarok.  22  Dance  rnicpie,  23 

Bleking,  20  Dancing  Topsy,  23 

Chimes  of  Dunkirk,  20  Danish  Dance  of  Greeting,  10 

Csebogar,  22  English  ("hurch  Pageant.  21 

Carousel,  15  First  of  .May,  15 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY 


47 


Gossiping  Ella,  19 

Girl  I  left  Behind  Me,  23 

Highland  Schottische,  18,  22 

Highland  Fling,  16 

Hop  Mother  Anika,  20 

Irish  Lilt,  17,  22 

Japanese  Dance,  22 

Krakovienne,  22 

Komarno,  16 

Khorovad,  22 

Now  'Tis  Christmas  Time,  15     ' 

National  Dances,  20 

Norwegian  Mountain  March,  16 

Oxdansen,  16 


Pop  Goes  the  WeaseU  17 
Peter  Magnus,  15 
Rorenacka,  19 
Ritsch  Ratsch,  15 
Rose  Dance,  24 
Reap  the  Flax,  16 
Strasak,  22 

Swedish  Long  Dance,  22 
Swedish  Clap  Dance,  17,  20 
Sailors'  Hornpipe,  17 
Tarantella,  16 
Varsovienne,  22 
Washing  the  Clothes,  16 
Weaving  Dance,  18 


Chapter  Seven 

(  OXTESTS  BETWEEN  1 M )  I M I  )T  ALS 

We  have  here  for  the  first  time  a  lorinal  comparison  of  al)ilities 
among  the  i)hiyers,  calling  for  plans  and  arrangements  to  secure 
fairness.  The  simplest  cases  of  this  kind  are  the  simple  contests 
between  individuals,  such  as  a  foot  race  or  a  contest  in  jumping.  To 
make  an  accurate  comparison  of  abilities  and  find  out  who  is  actually 
superior  it  is  necessary  (1)  to  see  that  each  contestant  has  just  as 
good  conditions  for  his  work  as  all  the  others  and  that  C-i)  the  per- 
formance of  each  is  accurately  measured  or  fairly  judged.  To  pro- 
vide for  this,  rules  are  made  to  guide  players  and  judges.  Such  rules 
must  be  fully  understood  by  all  and  accepted  for  the  common  good. 
In  the  case  of  a  few  standard  sports  and  games  there  are  published 
rules,  made  by  a  committee  of  experts  and  revised  occasionally  with 
effort  to  improve  the  play  if  ])ossible.  The  best  illustration  of  all 
this  is  the  list  of  track  and  field  sjjorts  in  common  use  everywhere. 


Track  and  Field  Sports 

.   ^  J  100  vard  dash 

sprmts  ,2^20  Vard  dash 


Track  Events 


hurdles 


j   hiO  yard  liigh  hurdle 
\  220  yard  low  hurdle 

440  yard  run 
half  mile 
one  mile 
two  luiles  • 


Field  Events 


jumps 


weights 


running  high 
running  broad 
pole  vault 

.shot 

hammer 

discus 


The  Standard  Events.-  The  standard  events  of  track  athletics 
form  two  main  divisions:  the  track  events  and  the  field  events.  The 
track  events  include  the  sprints,  the  hurdle  races,  and  the  distance 

4S 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  49 

runs;  the  field  events  include  jumping  and  throwino-  weights.  The 
sprints  are  the  races  in  which  the  runner  goes  at  utmost  speed.  The 
hurdle  races  are  obstacle  races.  The  long  distance  runs  call  for 
endurance  as  well  as  speed. 

The  Sprints. — There  are  two  of  these:  the  100  and  the  '-2'20- 
yard  runs.  Here  the  men  run  in  lanes  four  feet  wide  made  by  attach- 
ing cord  to  stakes  18  inches  high.  A  straight  mark  is  made  for  the 
starting  place,  and  another  at  the  finish.  The  runners  draw  numbers 
to  determine  their  {positions  in  starting.  Most  sprinters  nowadays 
use  what  is  called  the  crouching  start.  A  small  hole  is  dug  for  the 
toes  of  each  foot,  one  about  18  inches  in  front  of  the  other;  the  tips 
of  the  fingers  rest  on  the  ground  at  the  starting  line.  The  starter 
calls,  "on  your  marks,"  at  which  the  runners  take  their  places  at  the 
starting  line.  He  then  calls  "Set!"  at  which  each  gets  ready  for  his 
start.  As  soon  as  all  are  ready  he  fires  the  pistol  as  the  signal  to  go. 
If  any  runner  starts  before  the  pistol,  all  are  called  back,  the  one 
offending  is  put  back  a  yard,  and  the  three  stages  of  the  start  are 
repeated.  A  cord  is  stretched  at  the  finish,  and  three  judges  and  one 
or  more  timekeepers  are  stationed  there.  The  judges  are  to  pick  the 
first,  second,  and  third  contestants  to  reach  the  tape.  Each  timer 
has  a  stop-watch,  which  he  sets  going  as  the  pistol  is  fired;  when  the 
first  runner  strikes  the  cord  at  the  finish  he  stops  the  watch,  which 
should  then  record  the  exact  time  of  the  race.  The  best  time  ever 
made  in  the  100-yard  dash  is  9|  seconds;    in  the  '-2*20,  21i  seconds. 

The  Hurdle  Races. — There  are  two  of  these:  one  of  l'-2()  yards, 
with  10  hurdles  3  feet  high,  and  one  of  '220  yards  with  10  hurdles 
23^  feet  high.  The  start  is  made  as  for  a  sprint  race,  each  runner 
having  a  course  which  the  others  must  not  cross  nor  encroach  upon. 
The  finish  is  judged  and  timed  as  in  other  races.  Hurdles  may  be 
knocked  over  without  forfeiting  the  race,  but  a  record  cannot  be  made 
unless  all  the  hurdles  are  left  standing.  The  high  hurdles  are  too 
high  for  grammar  or  high  school  boys  to  use.  The  record  for  the 
1'20-yard  high  hurdle  race  is  15.1  seconds;  for  the  ^^O-yard  low 
hurdle  race,  ^Sf  seconds. 

The  Distance  Runs. — These  are  the  quarter,  the  half,  and  the 
mile,  with  several  longer  distances  from  which  a  choice  is  usually 
agreed  upon.  In  all  these  races  the  methods  of  conducting  the  start 
and  finish  are  the  same  as  in  the  sprints;  but  the  runners  are  not 
restricted  to  a  fixed  course,  and  one  may  cross  or  go  in  front  of  an- 
other as  soon  as  he  is  six  feet  in  advance.  The  best  time  ever  made 
in  the  quarter-mile  is  47  seconds;  in  the  half  mile,  6  seconds  less 
than  two  minutes;  in  the  mile,  four  minutes  15;^  seconds. 

The  Jumps. — The  regular  jumps  are  the  running  broad  jump, 
the  running  high  jump,  and  the  pole  vault. 


50  THE    TEACHIXC;    OF    PLAY 

In  the  running  broad  jump  tlie  contestants  may  run  as  far  as 
they  please,  but  all  nuist  start  from  a  plank  set  in  the  i>n)un(l,  with 
the  earth  du<;'  away  from  the  front  to  a  depth  of  three  inches,  and 
called  the  *'Take-ott'.'" 

If  one  steps  over  the  plank  so  as  to  break  ground  in  front  of  it 
the  jump  is  not  measured,  but  it  counts  as  a  trial.  The  jump  is 
measured  with  a  taj)e  from  the  front  of  the  ])lank  to  the  nearest  point 
at  which  the  jumper  l)reaks  ground,  whether  with  feet,  hands,  or 
body.  Each  contestant  has  three  trials,  and  then  the  three  best  are 
u.sually  given  thre(>  more  if  they  desire,  each  man's  best  jump  being 
taken.    The  longest  jumj)  on  record  is  '-24  feet  7^4^  inches. 

In  the  running  high  jumj)  each  contestant  nnist  clear  the  bar 
without  (lisi)lacing  it  from  its  supports.  The  bar  is  i)laced  at  first 
at  a  height  that  all  can  clear;  each  has  three  trials  if  necessary;  then 
the  bar  is  rai.sed.  \Mioever  fails  to  clear  it  at  any  height  in  three 
trials  drops  out,  and  the  .successful  ones  try  at  greater  heights  until 
only  one  remains.  Going  over  the  bar  head  first,  by  a  movement 
called  a  "dive,"  is  not  permitted;  neither  can  anyone  assist  the 
jumper  to  alight.    The  record  for  the  high  jinnp  is  (i  feet  3^^  inches. 

The  pole  vault  is  conducted  like  the  high  jump.  The  contestants 
must  not  climb  the  i)ole;  they  imist  clear  the  bar  without  displacing 
it.    The  record  for  the  pole  vault  is  I'-i  feet  D'  ^  inches. 

Thkowixc;  Wekjhts. — This  include^  pulling  the  shot,  throwing 
the  hammer,  and  throwing  the  discus. 

The  shot  is  a  round  iron  ball,  1-2  lbs.  in  weight  for  high  school, 
and  10  lbs.  for  college  contests.  The  contestants  put  the  shot  from 
a  circle  7  feet  in  diameter;  one  may  not  step  from  the  circle  except 
from  the  rear  half  until  the  distance  is  measured;  it  is  measured  from 
the  nearest  side  of  the  circle  to  the  place  wh(>re  the  shot  first  strikes 
the  ground.  Each  contestant  has  three  trials,  then  the  three  best 
have  three  more.     Record,  for  the  l(i-ll).  shot,  .52  feet,  7  inches. 

The  hammer  is  a  shot  with  a  '24-inch  handle.  The  thrower 
stands  in  the  7-foot  circle  to  make  tlie  throw,  and  the  rules  are  in  gen- 
eral like  tho.se  for  the  shot.     Record  for  Ki-lb.  hammer,  171  ft.,  <S  in. 

The  discus  is  a  flat  disk  of  metal  weighing  four  and  one-half 
pounds.  It  is  thrown  from  the  7-foot  circle,  subject  to  the  same  rules 
as  the  shot  and  hannnei-.     Record  discus  throw,  127  ft.,  8-^4  in.* 

Track  Meets. — Track  athletics  are  usually  stinuilated  through 
tournaments  or  "meets"  between  schools  and  between  cla.s.ses  in  the 
same  school.  In  pre])aration  for  a  meet  between  two  or  more  .schools, 
the  ground  for  the  different  contests  should  be  prepared  beforehand, 
all  aj)])aratus  being  provided  and  exciylhing  made  ready.  Courses 
for  the  runs  sliould  be  nieasiu-e<l  accurately  and  smoothed;  the  plank 
.set  in  place  for  the  broad  juni]);    ground  spaded  up  for  the  high  jump 


*A.  A.  U.  Rules  for  .Vlhietics.     Spulilius?"s  .Vllik-lic  Libnu-y. 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY 


51 


and  tlie  pole  vault;  circles  drawn  for  the  weight  throwing;  hurdles 
made.  The  meet  should  be  put  in  charge  of  an  impartial  and  capable 
referee,  who  decides  all  questions  and  directs  the  manner  of  conduct- 
ing the  contests.  Rules  are  published  that  have  been  agreed  to  by 
the  national  associations,  with  directions  for  all  details  of  the  meet. 
Several  competent  and  impartial  judges,  timers,  and  scorers  should 
be  provided. 

Besides  the  track  and  field  sports  just  described,  many  other 
simple  contests  between  individuals  are  popular,  among  them  the 
following : 

(1)  Archery.— Shooting  at  a  target  with  bow  and  arrow  has 
been  at  times  the  most  popular  sport  in  the  world.  The  contestants 
usually  have  three  shots  at  the  target  at  a  trial,  and  eight  or  ten 
rounds  are  shot,  each  round  including  a  trial  by  each  contestant. 
In  tournaments  there  are  usually  three  rounds  at  different  distances, 
often  at  60,  50  and  40  yards.  The  targets  are  round,  four  feet  in 
diameter,  standing  on  an  easel.  Each  has  five  concentric  rings,  and 
shots  count  9,  7,  5,  3  or  1,  according  to  the  ring  pierced.* 

('2)  Bowling. — Bowling  is  at  present  a  very  popular  form  of 
exercise.  Large  wooden  balls  are  rolled  along  a  smooth  alley,  built 
of  wood,  Avith  the  object  of  knocking  down  a  group  of  ten  wooden 
pins  standing  at  the  further  end.  The  players  take  turns,  each  being 
allowed  to  bowd  two  balls  unless  he  knocks  down  all  the  pins  with 
one.  One  score  is  made  for  each  pin  knocked  down,  and  an  addi- 
tional score  is  given  as  follows:  If  a'l  the  pins  are  knocked  down  by 
the  first  ball,  it  is  called  a  "strike,"  and  the  score  made  with  the 
first  two  balls  in  the  next  turn  is  added  to  the  first  score  as  well  as 
being  counted  in  the  second.  If  all  the  pins  are  knocked  down  with 
the  first  two  balls,  it  is  called  a  "spare,"  and  the  score  made  with 
the  first  ball  of  the  next  turn  is  added  to  the  preceding  as  well  as  being 
counted  in  its  own  place.  Each  player  begins  each  turn  with  his 
pins  all  up  and  the  alley  clear  of  balls.  Ten  rounds  make  a  "  frame. "f 
If  in  a  certain  frame  player  A.  B.  scored  in  his  ten  rounds  6,  strike, 
spare,  7,  spare,  6,  strike,  8,  spare,  and  8,  while  his  opponent,  C.  D. 
scored  9,  8,  strike,  spare,  8,  strike,  spare,  spare,  4,  and  7,  the  score 
board  would  be  filled  out  as  follows.  It  will  be  noticed  that  only  the 
totals  are  entered,  so  that  the  score  written  in  each  space  is  the  total 
score  up  to  that  time.    X  means  a  strike;   \,  a  spare. 


A.  B. 

6 

X 

26 

\ 

43 

50 

\ 

66 

72 

X 

94 

102 

\  1 
120  128 

CD. 

9 

17 

X 

37 

\ 

55 

63 

X 

83 

X 

100 

X 

114 

118  125 

*Archery  Guide,  Spalding's  Athletic  Library. 
fBowling  Guide.    Spalding's  Athletic  Library. 


52  THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY 

(3)  Golf. — Golf  is  a  Scotch  i)lay  that  lias  become  very  po])ular 
in  this  country,  especially  among  women  and  middle  aged  men  who 
have  much  leisure.  It  is  played  with  a  small  ball  of  hard  rul)ber 
which  is  driven  with  a  special  form  of  stick,  having  a  straight  handle 
and  a  curved  metal  end  for  striking.  The  golf  course  is  a  series  of 
holes  four  inches  in  diameter  at  a  distance  of  several  rods  apart  in 
an  irregular  line  across  the  fields.  The  location  of  each  hole  is  marked 
by  a  flag.  The  object  of  the  i)lay  is  to  drive  the  l)ull  and  gel  it  into 
all  the  holes  in  the  course  in  succession  with  the  smallest  numl)er  of 
strokes.  Wheti  the  ball  is  tlriven  into  one  of  the  holes  it  is  removed 
by  the  hand  and  placed  for  the  next  drive  upon  a  small  pyramid  of 
wet  .sand  made  with  the  fingers  and  known  as  a  "tee."  From  here 
it  is  driven  to  the  vicinity  of  the  next  hole,  and  so  on. 

(4)  Bean  Bac  Target  Contests. — Draw  on  the  floor  three 
concentric  circles  with  radius  1,  '-2,  and  S  feet  and  number  these  cir- 
cles 5,  3,  1  from  within  outward.  Players  stand  at  a  line  1.5  or  -20 
feet  away  and  toss  3  bean  bags  at  the  target.  When  one  has  made 
his  3  throws  a  judge  records  the  score  made  from  the  positions  of 
the  bags:  each  lying  entirely  within  the  inner  circle  counts  5,  next 
circle  3,  outer  1.  A  bag  lying  on  a  circle  scores  for  the  outer  s])ace. 
As  soon  as  the  judge  has  recorded  the  score,  the  next  player  takes 
the  bags  and  throws  in  the  same  way.  With  a  large  group  several 
targets  may  be  used  at  once,  with  a  judge  or  scorer  at  each  target. 
Several  variations  of  this  play  are  as  follows: 

Bean  Bag  Board,  4,  .5  Faba  (iaba,  7 

Bean  Bag  Contests,  1-2  Sack  (iame,  3 

liean  Bag  Ring  Throw,  4  Target.  13 

Bean  Bag  Target,  1-2  Target  Toss,  4 

Throwing  Bags  into  Ring,  13 

(5)  Indian  Gijb  Race. — 

OOOOOOOO 


INDIAN  CUB  R.\("l-: 

(),  circles  in  wliicli  to  staiui  (•liil).s;   *,  j)lacfs  for  dubs  in  line. 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY 


53 


^lake  several  circles  on  floor  with  chalk  near  the  side  of  room, 
leaving  at  least  15  or  '^O  feet  to  run.  Stand  four,  five,  or  six  Indian 
clubs  in  each  circle,  and  make  as  many  crosses  on  the  floor  in  line 
with  each  circle,  crosses  three  to  ten  feet  apart  according  to  the  size 
of  the  room,  but  all  distances  alike.  A  pupil  stands  by  each  circle. 
At  the  word  "Go!"  each  takes  a  club  and  sets  it  up  on  one  of  his 
crosses,  returns  and  gets  another,  and  so  on,  taking  the  clubs  singly, 
until  all  are  set  up.  A  second  set  of  pupils  can  have  a  similar  race 
now  without  any  rearrangement  by  having  the  rimners  take  the  clubs 
from  the  crosses  and  stand  them  up  in  the  circles.  A  third  set  may 
have  a  contest  like  the  first,  and  a  fourth  like  the  second,  and  so  on 
until  all  have  run. 

The  following  additional  contests  are  also  used  between  indi- 
viduals : 


Arrow  Chase,  4 

Bag  Toss,  9 

Baseball  Throw,  5 

Basketball  Distance  Throw,  4 

Chalk  the  Arrow,  3 

Chinese  Chicken,  4 

Chin  the  Bar,  5 

Circle  Race,  4 

Crossing  the  Brook,  1,  4,  I'i 

Crow  Race,  9 

Derby  Jig,  1,  12 

Dumb-bell  Race,  9 


Hare  and  Hounds,  3,  7 
Obstacle  Race,  '2 
Potato  Race,  2,  4 
Rabbit  Race,  12 
Races,  3 

Race,  Placing  Objects, 
Rolling  Target,  4,  5 
Rubber  Ball  Race,  9 
Russian  Hole  Ball,  4 
Skittles,  6 
Wand  Race,  4,  9 


14 


Arrow  Chase  and  Chalk  the  Arrow  are  slight  variations  of  the 
old  English  race  called  Hare  and  Hounds. 

It  is  evident  that  an  individual  contest  can  be  conducted  using 
any  form  of  exercise  that  can  be  measured  or  accurately  judged. 
For  example,  contests  are  held  in  club  swinging, — the  number  of 
movements,  their  difficulty,  and  the  accuracy  and  speed  of  per- 
formance being  considered  in  judging;  exercises  in  heavy  gymnastics, 
including  prescribed  and  optional  exercises  are  used;  contests  are 
also  common  in  swimming  and  fancy  diving,  fancy  and  figure  skating, 
and  in  trick  bicycle  riding.  In  such  cases  it  is  necessary  to  have 
experts  for  judges,  and  it  is  very  desirable  also  to  have  the  contestants 
know  beforehand  the  points  such  judges  consider  most  important. 

Handicaps. — It  is  impossible  to  maintain  interest  in  a  group  for 
any  considerable  time  by  individual  contests  because  it  soon  becomes 
well  known  who  is  apt  to  win  each  event,  and  then  few  others  care 
to  try.  To  remedy  this  lack  of  interest  and  give  every  player  an 
equal  chance  in  every  contest  a  system  of  handicaps  is  often  used 
with  profit.  A  handicap  is  a  special  requirement  placed  on  those 
who  have  won  contests,  designed  to  give  them  only  an  equal  chance 


54  THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY 

with  otliors.  For  oxaiii|)lo.  the  wiiiiuM-  of  a  foot  race  is  phiced  back 
of  the  startiiiii  Hue  a  certain  distance,  (lei)en(linji-  on  the  length  of  the 
race;  a  winning  jumper  is  reciuired  to  give  opj)onents  so  many  inches; 
an  exjjert  chil)  swinger  nnist  give  opi)onents  so  many  points.  The 
difficulty  in  the  i)lan  of  handicapping  is  to  award  to  each  former 
winner  the  right  amount  of  handicap.  This  nMjuires  careful  stud\-  of 
conditions  and  relative  al)ilities  of  players  and  some  exi)erience  in 
assigning  handicaps,  but  many  teachers  and  coaches  learn  how  to  do 
it  and  by  this  means  keep  the  interest  of  their  players  to  a  high  point. 


Questions  and  Exercises 
1.     ^Yhat  advantages  are  gained  by  bringing  rivalry  into  pla>? 
'•2.     What  dangers  are  incurred?     Can  these  be  avoidcd!- 
,'>.     Why  are  more  definite  rules  needed  here  than   in   former 
plays? 

4.  What  fact  should  be  establi.shed  by  a  contest?  ^^hat  good 
is  it  if  it  fails  to  do  this?  How  and  wh>-  ina\-  it  fail  to  show  what  it 
should? 

5.  Is  it  of  real  ad\antage  to  a  child  to  seem  to  win  when  he 
really  is  not  superior  to  his  opi)onent?    What  harm? 

(>.  Can  children  in  general  be  trusted  to  hav(^  fair  intcntioiis? 
Can  they  as  generally  be  trusted  to  decide  accurately  what  is  fair 
and  what  is  not?    (Jive  reasons  for  your  answers. 

7.  How  would  you  show  a  group  of  boys  that  the  principle 
"It  is  as  fair  for  one  as  for  anotlier"  is  not  a  sufficient  reason  for 
approving  any  act? 

8.  Write  out  a  coini)li'tc  plan  for  conducting  an  indi\i<lual 
contest  in  four  events  chosen  from  the  list  of  track  and  field  sports 
suitable  for  seventh  grade  boys. 

0.  Select  four  exercises  suitable  for  eighth  grade  girls  and  for 
an  individual  contest,  and  state  just  how  you  would  conduct  it. 

10.  Should  the  coach  or  teacher  encourage  players  to  "beat 
the  rules'"  when  the  offic-ial  is  not  looking?  What  reason  would  you 
give  the  players  for  your  attitude  on  this  point? 

11.  What  are  the  supposed  advantages  of  "kicking  on  the 
deci.sions"  of  an  official?  .\.rc  they  real?  What  should  be  the  atti- 
tude of  the  teacher  or  coach  regarding  this  practice? 

hi.  Exi)lain  the  advantage  and  importance  of  having  a  gt)od 
official  and  tell  how  to  be  sure  of  getting  fair  decisions. 

13.  Is  it  fair  to  take  advantage  of  an  accident  to  an  opponent? 
Give  your  reasons  for  your  view  of  this  (piestion.  What  does  it 
depend  on? 


Chapter  Eight 

CONTESTS  BETWEEN  GROUPS 

For  educational  purposes  and  to  stimulate  interest  in  exercise 
and  training,  contests  between  groups  are  much  more  effective  than 
contests  between  individuals.  Contests  between  individuals  bring 
out  the  few  star  performers;  contests  between  groups,  if  properly 
managed,  arouse  interest  and  stimulate  endeavor  through  the  whole 
group.  There  are  several  types  of  group  contest,  the  simplest  of 
which  is  illustrated  by  the  familiar  Tug  of  War. 

Tug  of  War. — A  long  rope  is  stretched  out  on  a  level  surface; 
the  members  of  one  team  grasp  one  end  and  those  of  the  other  team 
the  other  end.  A  handkerchief  is  tied  about  the  rope  to  mark  its 
middle,  and  two  lines  are  marked  on  the  ground  a  yai'd  apart  and  at 
right  angles  to  the  rope.  When  all  is  ready  the  teams  take  positions 
so  as  to  bring  the  middle  of  the  rope  midway  between  the  two  lines, 
and  then  the  signal  is  given  to  pull.  The  side  pulling  the  middle  of 
the  rope  past  the  line  first  wins  the  contest,  or  the  pull  may  be  for  a 
certain  number  of  seconds.  The  distinguishing  feature  of  this  type 
of  contest  is  that  the  group  acts  as  a  mass,  no  comparison  of  indi- 
vidual abilities  being  made.     The  following  are  somewhat  similar: 

Advancing  Statues,  '2,  5  Line  Club  Bowls,  4 

Center  Club  Bowls,  4  Rowing,  6,  7,  10 

Chariot  Race,  2,  l!^  Tournament,  2 

Circle  Wand  Contest,  9  Water  Tug  of  War,  2 

Another  plan  or  type  of  group  contest  is  illustrated  by  "Wand 
Tug  of  War,"  in  which  the  members  of  one  group  compete  individu- 
ally with  those  of  the  other  groups,  and  then  a  count  is  taken  to  find 
which  group  has  the  most  winners.    The  following  are  of  this  kind: 

Bean  Bags  and  Basket,  4  Snatch  the  Bean  Bag,  5 

Club  Snatch,  4  Snatch  the  Handkerchief,  9 

Line  Tug,  2  Wand  Tug  of  War,  2,  9 

The  "Olympic  Games"  of  the  ancient  Greeks  were  conducted 
chiefly  on  this  plan,  which  has  been  adopted  in  modern  times  as  the 
plan  for  conducting  track  and  field  sports  between  groups.  The  plan 
has  been  gradually  modified  to  include  more  than  one  point-winner 
in  each  event.  For  example,  instead  of  counting  only  the  winner, 
all  modern  meets  score  points  for  the  three  best  performers  and  in 


56 


THE    TKACHI.\(i    OF    I'LA'^ 


some  instances  the  t'onr  best  are  counted;  it  is  seriously  jjroposed 
now  that  in  tlie  Uirge  college  meets  the  best  five  shall  he  given  a 
score.  This  improves  the  system  from  the  ethicational  point  of  view, 
the  main  defect  in  the  past  being  that  it  has  acted  too  much  like  an 
individual  contest  and  stimulated  interest  only  in  the  few  star  per- 
formers. 

The  best  ty|)e  of  group  contest  is  one  that  counts  the  perl'ormance 
of  every  member  of  each  group  for  what  it  is  worth,  and  thus  stimu- 
lates every  one  to  do  his  best  for  his  team.  In  field  events  and  similar 
contests  it  is  easy  to  do  this  by  having  each  man  perform  each  event 
in  his  turn  and  then  average  the  records  made  by  all  the  men  of  a 
team  to  compare  with  the  average  made  by  other  teams.  Two  or 
three  schools,  for  example,  may  enter  twenty,  fift.w  or  a  hundred 
boys  or  girls  in  an  event  and  in  this  way  their  relative  al)ilities  may  be 
shown.  By  planning  the  details  well  and  providing  several  places  to 
carry  on  the  different  contests,  large  numbers  can  be  handled  instead 
of  a  few.  The  same  thing  can  he  done  even  more  easily  by  arranging 
a  table  of  points  for  each  event  and  scoring  the  performances  by  the 
table;  in  this  way  the  total  can  be  known  up  to  any  moment.  The 
Y.  M.  (".  -V.  has  adopted  a  set  of  scoring  tables  for  several  of  the  most 
common  events  that  have  been  published  and  can  be  had  in  book 
form.* 

A  grouj)  contest  that  is  held  each  year  at  ^'psilanti  between 
senior  and  junior  men  includes  the  regular  track  and  field  events, 
slightly  modified  to  suit  indoor  conditions,  each  player  scoring  1,  .'}. 
or  .5  for  his  class  if  he  wins  a  third,  second,  or  first  place.  Preliminary' 
to  the  meet  there  are  contests  in  swimming,  weight  lifting,  jumi)ing, 
and  putting  shot  in  which  all  men  of  the  class  may  take  part.  The 
manner  of  sct)ring  in  the  prclimitiar>'  trials  is  shown  in  the  following 
table : 


1  point 

2  points 

3  points 

4  points 

5  points 

Swim 

30  ft 

60  ft 
125  Kilos 

90  ft 

120  ft 

150  ft 

Lift 

100  Kilos 

150  Kilos 

175  Kilos 

200  Kilos 

Jump 
"Shot 

3  ft  9 

4  ft 

4  ft  :5 

4  ft  G 

4  ft  9 

18  ft 

^21  ft 

24  ft 

27  ft 

30  ft 

P^ach  class  is  credited  with  a  percentage  obtained  by  comparing 
the  number  of  points  scored  with  the  greatest  number  of  points  they 
might  score  if  all  took  |)art  and  made  5  points  each ;  the  percentage  won 
in  preliminary  trials  counts  half  and  that  won  in  the  meet  counts  half. 

The  junior  and  .senior  girls  lia\ c  a  contest  including  the  following 
events : 

Balance  Beams  ("lub  Swinging,  (lass 

Basketball  Club  Swinging,  liidi\  idual 

*.\tliletic  Ivt-agiif  Iliimlhoiik.  Spalding's  Athletic  Lil)rary. 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  O/ 

Dancing,  Class  Newconib 

Dancing,  Individual  Relay 

Emperor  Ball  Rope  Climbing 

Fifteen  Yard  Dash  Swimming 

High  Jump  Traveling  Rings 

Marching  Tug  of  War 

In  these  events  individuals  and  classes  can  earn  from  3^2  point 
up  to  fifty  points  or  even  more.  Credit  is  allowed  for  attendance  at 
class  practice,  and  preliminary  trials  give  every  one  a  chance  to  earn 
something  in  some  event  if  physically  fit.  Those  physically  unfit  are 
not  allowed  to  enter. 

The  following  events  are  suggested  for  a  meet  between  girls  of 
the  seventh  to  twelfth  grades,  the  meet  to  be  completed  within  one 
hour: 

1.  Basketball  Distance  Throw,  throw  to  be  made  from  the 
usual  7-foot  circle,  floor  to  be  marked  so  that  the  judges  can  mark 
scores  quickly  and  points  as  follows:  25  feet,  1  point;  30  feet,  "i 
points;    35  feet,  3  points;    40  feet,  4  points;    45  feet,  5  points. 

'2.  Balance  Beam  Walk,  one  point  to  be  scored  for  each  length 
of  beam  player  walks  continuously  without  stepping  off,  5  points  to 
be  limit. 

3.  Bean  Bag  Target  Throw,  each  player  to  throw  5  bags  at 
a  3-foot  circle  from  a  distance  of  15  feet  and  each  bag  lying  entirelj^ 
within  the  circle  when  the  three  are  thrown  to  count  one  point. 

4.  Indian  Club  Race,  5  clubs  5  feet  apart,  nearest  one  5  feet 
from  circle,  all  players  completing  in  20  seconds  to  receive  5  points, 
22  seconds  4  points,  24  seconds  3  points,  26  seconds  2  points,  28  sec- 
onds 1  point. 

Relay  Contests 

A  relay  contest  is  a  contest  between  groups  in  which  each  player 
of  each  group  takes  his  part  in  turn  with  the  object  of  finishing  in 
less  time  than  the  opposing  groups.  Relays  are  adapted  best  to 
running  and  to  handling  objects.  Running  relays  are  either  of  the 
"shuttle"  form,  where  the  runners  go  back  and  forth,  or  the  "course" 
form,  where  they  run  around  a  course. 

RUNNING   relays,    SHUTTLE    FORM 

Blackboard  Relay,  2,  4,  5  Jumping  Relay,  4,  5 

Fetch  and  Carry,  4  Single  Rela}^  1,  4,  5 

First  or  Last,  9  Shuttle  Relay,  4,  5 

Hopping  Race,  12  Tag  the  Wall  Relay,  1,  4 

Hopping  Relay,  4,  5,  13 


THE    TEACIIIXG    OF    PLAY 


All  rj),   1.  4,  5, 

Auto  Rjue,  4 
Circle  Relay,  4 
Circle  Seat  Relay,  4 


RUNNINC    RELAYS,    COl'RSE    FORM 

1^2,  13 


Japanese^  Crab  Race,  4 
Obstacle  Race.  ^2,  b2 
One-legji'cd  Relay,  1 
Relay  Race     I)()ul)le,  1.  1 
Telegram,  13 


RELAYS    IX    HANDLING    OBJECTS 


Basketball  Contests,  9 
Bean  Bag  Contest,  5 
Bean  Bag  Race,  5 
Bean  Bag  Relay,  12 
Bean  Bag  Ring  Throw,  4 
Bean  Bag  Target,  1 
Bend  and  Stretch  Relay,  4 
Catch  Basket,  4 
Circle  Zigzag,  4 
Corner  Spry,  4,  13 
Criss  Cross,  1 
Criss  Cross  Goal,  4 
Clothes  Pin  Contest,  i) 
Indian  Clnb  Race,  4 


Line  Zigzag,  4 

Overtake.  4,  13 

Pass  Ball,  2,  5 

Passing  Race,  4 

Passing  Dumb  Bells,  3 

Passitig  Relays  with  Bean  Bags,  4 

Round  Ball,  4 

Rubber  Ball  Contests,  9 

Ten  Trii)s.  4.  13 

Time  Ball.  1 

Two  Balls,  !) 

Zigzag  Ball.  1 

Zigzag  (James,  .5 

Zigzag  ()\('rlu>ad  Toss,  4 


KKLAYS    L\    1{1".\XIXG 

Arch  Ball.  4 

Arch  (ioal  Ball.  4 

Bag  Pile.  4.  13 

Basketball  Relav.  .> 

Basketball  (ioal  Race.  2 

Bean  Bag.  7 

Bean  Bag  Backward.  12 

Center  Club  Bowls.  4 

Desk  Relav,  4 

Dumb  Beli  Race,  3 

End  to  End  Bean  Bag,  1 

Elag  Race.  2 

Hand  ()v(M-liead  Bean  Bag,  4 

Home  Run.  4,  1.3 


AXD    IX    HANDLING    OB.IECTS 

Indian  Club  Straddle  Race. 

Juni})  the  iiean  Bay.  4 

Line  Ball.  4 

Medicine  Ball.  3 

Medicine  Ball  Pursuit  Race. 

Over  and  I'nder  Relav.  4 

Pass  Ball  Relay.  4 

Pass  and  Toss  Relay.  4 

Potato  Race.  5,  4 

Potato  Shuttle  Relav,  4,  o 

R(>ach  Pass  liall,  13 

Siraddli'  Ball  Race,  2 

Stride  Ball.  4 

Naullinu  Relay.  4 


Questions  and  Exercises 
1.     State  several  advantages  of  grou})  contests  over  individual 
contests. 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  59 

"2.  How  early  in  the  grades  would  you  use  contests?  Which 
earHer,  group  or  individual?     Which  kind  of  group  contests  first? 

3.  How  early  in  the  grades  would  you  have  a  school  team  and 
contests  with  other  schools?    Reasons  on  both  sides. 

4.  Show  why  a  shuttle  relay  is  not  likely  to  be  carried  on  as 
fairly  as  a  relay  around  a  course. 

5.  Select  from  above  lists  group  or  relay  contests  that  might 
be  too  vigorous  for  a  certain  group  of  players;  some  that  would  have, 
too  little  vigor  for  most  players;  some  that  would  be  variable  in 
vigor  at  the  choice  of  the  teacher. 

6.  Make  a  list  of  group  contests  and  relays  that  might  be  con- 
ducted without  bringing  the  contesting  players  to  the  same  place, 
and  show  how  it  could  be  done.  Give  another  list  in  which  the  con- 
test will  require  coming  to  a  common  place.  State  advantages  of 
both  plans. 


Chapter  Nine 

INTERMEDIATE  PLAYS  BETWEEN   (ON  PES  IS 
AND  GAMES 

Archery,  Bowlinj-,  (iolf,  and  track  athletes  have  been  chissed 
as  simple  contests,  because  in  all  of  them  each  player  hjis  the  same 
"thing  to  do  as  all  the  others,  and  it  is  a  fundamental  principle  that 
the  conditions  of  performance  should  be  exactly  the  same  for  all.  In 
the  following  contests  we  have  a  resemblance  to  the  preceding,  but 
the  play  of  one  may  change  the  conditions  under  which  those  coming 
later  must  take  |)arl.  Still  we  have  not  yet  the  freedom  of  action  and 
direct  opposition  that  are  found  in  games,  and  hence  they  ar(>  placed 
in  an  intermediate  grouj). 

Hop  Scotch. — This  is  played  by  children  and  especially  by  girls 
from  eight  to  fourteen  years  of  age.  There  are  two  forms  of  the  i)lay, 
the  one  most  commonly  played  at  present  being  as  follows: 

Twenty  s(|uares,  from  "iO  to  'JO  inches  on  a  side,  are  marked  out 
on  a  sidewalk  or  smooth  ground,  in  two  rows  of  ten  each.  The  object 
of  the  i)lay  is  to  hoj)  from  one  square  to  the  next,  up  one  row  and  l)ack 
the  other,  without  stepping  on  a  line  or  touching  the  other  foot  to  the 
ground.  Each  player  has  a  trial  in  turn,  and  each  one  who  succeeds 
may  mark  any  square  in  the  series  with  her  initial,  after  which  she 
may  in  any  trial  stop  and  rest  on  both  feet  in  this  s(|uare,  while  the 
other  players  nmst  hoj)  across  it  witiiout  touching  it.  This  continues 
until  the  i)lay  is  blocked  by  some  j)layer's  having  so  numy  s(|uares  in 
a  row  that  no  one  can  hop  over  them,  or  until  all  the  scjuares  are 
taken.     The  one  having  the  most  scjuares  marked  is  the  winner. 

Croquet. — In  cro(|uet  each  player  has  a  ball  and  a  mallet.  The 
object  of  the  ])lay  is  to  drive  the  ball  through  a  series  of  14  arches  or 
wickets,  following  a  uniform  course  and  striking  two  stakes  in  i)roi)er 
order.  Each  player  making  an  arch  or  stake  may  have  a  trial  at  the 
next  one  in  order,  and  continues  until  \\v  misses.  Thus  far  cro(|uet  is 
a  simple  contest;  but  instead  of  making  an  arch,  a  player  may  with 
any  stroke  hit  the  ball  of  a  partner  or  an  opponent,  and  then  may  lay 
hi.s  ball  beside  the  one  that  was  hit  and  strike  it  .so  as  to  move  the 
other  ball  as  well  as  his  own;  a  partner's  ball  is  sent  forward  to  a 
better  position  and  an  opponent's  ball  is  driven  to  a  place  from  which 
it  will  l>e  more  difficult  or  impossible  to  make  an  arch.  RoQUE  is  a 
game  like  cnxpiet,  i)layed  with  balls,  mallets,  and  arches  nnich  more 
accurately  made,  and  upon  a  more  perfect  gi-oiuid.* 


*CTC)quct  Guide,  Si)al(liii«'.s  .Vtliietic  Liljrjuy.  No.   l.'W.     RcHim-  (Jui.lc.  \.>.  'ill 

60 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY 


61 


Quoits. — Here  two  stakes  are  set  firmly  in  the  ground  at  a  dis- 
tance of  44  feet,  and  standing  3  or  4  inches  above  the  surface.  Each 
player  has  two  or  four  heavy  metal  rings  or  disks;  these  they  pitch 
in  turn  at  one  stake  from  a  point  behind  the  other  one.  After  all  the 
quoits  have  been  pitched,  their  positions  are  examined,  and  the  side 
having  a  quoit  nearest  the  stake  scores.  A  quoit  ringing  the  stake 
counts  three;  one  score  is  counted  for  each  quoit  which  one  side  has 
nearer  the  stake  than  all  the  quoits  belonging  to  the  opponents.  This 
would  be  a  pure  contest  but  for  the  fact 
that  a  quoit  pitched  near  the  stake  may 
prevent  another's  coming  as  near,  and 
that  one  tjuoit  may  drive  another  nearer 
or  farther  away.* 

Curling. — Curling  is  an  ice  sport 
closely  resembling  quoits  in  general  plan. 
Two  holes  called  "tees"  are  cut  into  but 
not  through  the  ice  and  these  correspond 
to  the  stakes;  they  are  44  feet  apart.  In- 
stead of  quoits,  curling  stones  are  used. 
These  are  rounded  boulders  of  granite 
weighing  from  30  to  50  pounds,  and  each 
having  a  handle  at  the  top.  Each  player 
bowls  his  stone  along  the  ice  in  his  turn, 
and  the  score  is  counted  as  in  quoits.  An 
additional  feature  of  curling  is  that  a 
partner  of  a  player  with  a  broom  may 
sweep  the  ice  ahead  of  his  stone  until  it 
reaches  the  tee,  to  make  it  easier  for  it  to 
slide  and  so  to  help  it  on  or  guide  it;  after 
it  passes  the  tee  the  opponents  may  sweep 
ahead  of  it.  Four  players  make  a  team; 
the  captain  is  called  the  "skip,"  and  has 
full  control  of  the  play  of  the  team.f 

BoW'LiNG  ON  THE  Green. — This  is  a 
form  of  play  bearing  a  close  resemblance 
in  many  ways  to  the  two  preceding.  It 
is  played  on  a  smooth  lawn  with  wooden 
balls  that  are  not  quite  round,  having  one 
side  turned  with  a  less  curvature  than  the 
other.  Each  player  has  two  of  these 
"bowls;"  a  smaller  ball,  of  different 
color,  is  called  the  "jack."  The  first 
player  bowls  the  jack  out  on  the  lawn  as 
a  mark  for  the  bowling.    The  bowls  are 

*Quoits.     Spalding's  Athletic  Library,  No.  167. 
tSpalding's  Athletic  Library,  No.  14. 


62  THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY 

bowled  at  it  in  turn,  and  the  score  is  counted,  as  in  quoits  and  curl- 
ing, l)y  notiiig  the  nearness  of  the  lialls  to  the  jack.  Here  the  jack, 
as  well  as  the  other  howls  may  be  moved  by  a  blow;  this  makes  it 
more  like  a  true  game  to  that  extent.  The  players  bowl  from  a  small 
rubber  mat,  and  when  a  turn  is  completed,  the  mat  is  carried  to  the 
position  of  the  jack,  and  the  bowling  is  repeated  from  this  point  in 
such  direction  as  the  first  player  sees  fit  to  bowl  the  jack  for  the  next 
round.* 

The  following  ])la\s  belong  to  this  class: 

IxDniDiAL  Contests  Resembling  Games 

Call  Ball,  4,  bS  Jump  the  Shot,  1,  2 

Catch  Ball,  1  Lawn  Bowls,  1 

Catch  the  Cane,  4  Name  Ball,  2 

Catch  the  Wand,  .'>  Quoits,  (5,  7 

Curling,  (5,  7  Ring  Call  Ball,  4 

Cro(|uet,  7  School  Ball,  .1 

Drop  Ball,  1  Spin  the  Blatter,  .S,  4 

Hop  Scotch,  1,  7  Teacher  and  Class,  1,  4 
Three  Holes,  4 


"Spalding's  Athletic  Lil)rary,  Xo.  '207. 


Chapter  Ten 

GOAL  GAMES 

Many  of  the  best  gymnastic  games  for  children  have  been  de- 
rived from  modern  games  of  adults,  such  as  baseball,  tennis,  and  foot- 
ball; these  can  best  be  understood  by  studying  them  in  connection 
with  the  games  from  which  they  arise.  Besides  these  adaptations  of 
modern  games,  the  books  of  games  and  plays  describe  nearly  two 
hundred  games  for  children  that  are  based  on  the  ideas  of  goal  and 
tag.  All  these  goal  and  tag  games  fall  naturally  into  a  few  groups, 
the  games  of  a  group  being  often  so  nearly  alike  as  to  be  best  remem- 
bered as  a  single  game. 

The  goal  games  all  depend  on  the  idea  of  taking  and  holding 
possession  of  a  goal,  bye,  or  base,  which  is  a  home  or  a  place  of  safety 
in  most  instances;  sometimes  it  is  considered  as  the  property  of  the 
player  holding  it.  The  goal  or  base  as  a  place  of  safety  is  also  present 
in  many  games  of  tag,  but  we  will  consider  here  a  class  of  games  from 
which  all  idea  of  tag  is  absent.  There  are  two  groups  of  goal  games — 
those  in  which  there  are  individual  goals  for  the  players,  and  those  in 
which  there  is  a  common  goal. 

Games  with  Individual  Goals 

These  are  simple  games  suited  to  pupils  of  the  lower  grades. 
They  are  dramatic  games  and  differ  chiefly  in  the  dramatic  setting. 

Number  of  players:   10  to  50. 

Apparatus:  A  goal  for  each  player  but  one.  Chairs  make  the 
best  goals  for  most  of  these  games,  but  school  seats  may  be  used  by 
marking  those  to  be  used  in  some  convenient  way.  If  an  empty  room 
is  used,  goals  may  be  marked  on  the  floor  or  permanent  floor  marks 
may  be  used  when  present.  Possession  of  a  club,  dumbbell,  or  other 
object  may  be  substituted  for  a  goal  in  many  cases. 

The  teacher  first  appoints  one  player  to  be  "It,"  and  then  directs 
all  the  others  to  take  places  in  the  chairs,  which  have  been  arranged 
beforehand. 

Marching  to  Jerusalem. — For  this  game  the  chairs  are  ar- 
ranged in  one  row  with  alternate  chairs  facing  opposite  ways,  to  the 
side  or  in  a  circle  with  backs  toward  the  center.  The  teacher  directs 
the  players  to  rise,  turn  to  the  left,  and  march  around  the  row  of 
seats  in  time  with  musical  accompaniment  if  it  can  be  provided.  The 
player  who  is  "It"  goes  in  the  line  and  marches  with  the  others.  The 
music  should  mark  the  time  well  and  all  should  keep  time  and  march 

63 


64  THE    TEACHING    OF    I'LAY 

at  good  speed.  Hands  must  be  kept  off  the  chairs  while  inarching. 
At  an  unexpected  time  the  music  suddenly  stops,  and  then  all  the 
players  rush  for  seats,  each  taking  the  nearest  one  he  can  get.  One 
will  be  left  out,  and  must  take  one  chair  and  go  out  of  the  gaine. 
The  game  in  this  case  continues  until  only  one  player  is  left.  The 
teacher  should  declare  i)r()mptly  who  is  left  out  in  each  play  and  may 
declare  any  player  "It"  for  stopping  before  the  signal  is  given  or  for 
taking  hold  of  a  chair. 

This  may  also  be  played,  using  the  school  seats,  niarking  those 
not  to  be  used.  In  an  open  place  without  chairs,  circles  may  be 
marked  on  the  floor  for  goals;  where  this  is  not  feasible  each  pupil 
may  stand  an  Indian  club  on  the  floor,  the  clubs  forming  a  s(|uare  or 
circle.  All  march  about  the  line  of  clubs  and  at  the  signal  each  tries 
to  get  a  club. 

Housp:  Hiring. — Here  the  player  who  is  "It"  is  called  the 
'"House  Hirer,"  the  seats  are  houses,  and  it  is  supposed  to  be  moving 
time.  The  seats  are  in  two  rows  facing  each  other  or  facing  the  front, 
the  two  rows  five  or  six  feet  apart.  As  the  players  exchange  houses 
the  house  hirer  tries  to  get  possession  of  one.  If  the  players  do  not 
exchange  often  enough,  the  j)layers  are  numbered,  and  two  or  more 
players  nmst  exchange  houses  when  the  house  hirer  calls  the  numbers. 
The  one  crowded  out  l^ecomes  house  hirer,  and  the  game  continues. 

Pussy  Wants  a  Corxek. — The  player  who  is  '"It"  goes  from 
one  to  another  and  says  "Pussy  wants  a  corner."  The  j)layer  ad- 
dressed replies  "Ask  my  next  door  neighbor."  While  this  goe.s  on, 
others  exchange  places.^  The  one  who  is  "  It  "tries  to  get  one  of  the 
places,  and  when  he  succeeds,  the  one  left  out  is  "It." 

HiNTSMAN. — The  players  represent  the  various  parts  of  the 
huntsman's  outfit,  such  as  "the  horse,  the  gun,  the  game  bag,  the  dog, 
etc.  When  he  says,  "I'm  going  hunting,"  all  nnist  fall  in  line  behind 
him  and  nuirch  wherever  he  leads.  When  he  shouts  "Hang"  all  rush 
for  goals.    The  one  left  out  is  the  next  huntsman. 

The  three  games  just  described  will  illustrate  the  general  char- 
acter of  the  whole  grouj);  in  fact,  all  of  them  may  be  considered  as 
one  game  with  \ariation  in  the  device  by  which  the  players  are 
induced  to  leave  their  goals.     The  following  belong  here: 

Beater   (or   lieetle)   (iocs  Round.   ( 'hase  the  Rabbit,  1-2 
1,  ->,  4  ("omc  with  Me,  .3 

Boiler  Burst,  .S  Cenler  Pins,  !) 

Center  Stride  Ball.  1.  .">  (lo  He-  Caterpillar,  9 
tween,  J)  Confusion.  9 

Circle    Stride    Hall,    4-  Straddle   Driving  Hig  to  Market,  .'} 
Ball,  2  Dumb-bell  Chase,  9 

Changing  Seats,  14  Double  Circle,  9 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  65 

Fire  on  the  Mountains,  4  Presto  Change,  9 
Going  to  Jerusalem,  1,  4,  7,  9, 12      Roll  Ball,  3,  12 

Grandmother's  Clock,  9  Squirrels  in  Trees,  4 

Jack  be  Quick,  9  Save  Yourselves,  1,  3 

Kangaroo,  9  Scramble,  9 

Last  One  Out,  2  Slap  Jack,  4,  12 

Mail  Man,  1  Straddle  Pin,  2 

Merry-Go-Round,  12  Stage  Coach,  4,  12 

My  Lady's  Toilet,  4,  5  Stroke,  1 

Night  Before  Christmas,  12  Skip  Away,  14 

Nine  Pins,  1  Tom  the  Piper's  Son,  12 

Numbers  Change,  4  Whip  Tag,  4 
Puss  in  the  Corner,  1,2,3, 4, 5, 9, 14 

Games  with  a  Common  Goal 

These  are  usually  played  outdoors  and  by  players  a  little  older 
than  the  preceding;  they  are  all  games  of  hiding  and  seeking.  A 
goal  or  home  is  chosen;  one  player  is  usually  " It,"  and  the  others  are 
given  opportunity  to  hide  in  different  ways.  Most  of  the  games  are 
dramatic  to  a  considerable  degree. 

I  Spy. — Here  the  one  who  is  "It"  covers  his  eyes  by  the  goal 
while  he  counts  one  hundred  or  some  other  number  agreed  upon. 
Then  he  seeks  the  players  who  have  hidden.    To  catch  a  player,  the 

one  who  is  "It"  must  see  him,  call  "I  spy  ( ),"  and  then  tag  the 

goal.    If  one  can  reach  the  goal  before  the  one  who  is  "It"  can  do  so, 
he  is  free. 

Go — Stop. — This  differs  from  the  former  only  in  the  manner  of 
blinding.  The  game  starts  with  all  the  players  touching  the  goal; 
the  one  who  is  "It"  says  "Go,"  shuts  his  eyes  while  counting  ten 
aloud,  then  calls  "Stop,"  and  opens  his  eyes.  Anyone  seen  moving 
must  come  back  to  the  goal.  This  is  repeated  till  all  have  gotten  out 
of  sight,  then  the  search  begins  and  proceeds  as  in  I  Spy. 

Green  Wolf,  or  Relievo. — This  game  is  like  "I  Spy,"  but 
a  stick  is  leaned  against  the  goal  and  any  player  in  hiding  who  can 
run  to  the  goal  and  throw  this  stick  away  before  the  one  who  is 
"It"  can  reach  it  may  hide  again,  and  all  those  who  were  caught 
before  are  also  free  to  hide  again.  As  soon  as  the  one  who  is  "It" 
can  replace  the  stick  he  may  again  seek  those  hiding. 

Run,  Sheep,  Run. — This  is  a  team  game  of  hide  and  seek, 
played  in  grammar  grades.  Two  teams  are  chosen,  one  hiding  and 
the  other  blinding.  The  captain  of  each  team  is  the  shepherd  and 
does  not  hide,  but  he  hides  the  others.  He  calls  warnings  to  the 
sheep  as  the  others  search,  and  when  he  thinks  best  calls  "Run, 


66  THE   TEACHING   OF    PLAY 

Sheep,  Run,"  when  they  all  junij)  up  and  race  for  the  goal.  The 
player  reaching  the  goal  first  wins  the  game  for  his  side.  Then  the 
other  side  hides,  etc. 

Wolf. — This  game  involves  tagging,  but  it  is  so  much  like  this 
group  of  games  that  it  is  best  descrilied  here.  The  player  who  is 
"It"  is  called  the  wolf,  and  he  hides  while  the  others  all  blind  at  the 
goal.  When  he  is  ready  they  all  go  to  hunt  for  him.  When  one  sees 
the  wolf  he  shouts  "Wolf!"  and  all  race  for  the  goal.  If  the  wolf  can 
tag  any  before  they  reach  the  goal  those  tagged  become  wolves  with 
him  and  go  and  hide  along  with  him.  The  game  continues  until 
either  all  are  wolves  or  all  the  wolves  are  caught  by  the  others. 


Chapter  Eleven 

TAG  GAMES 

Tag  symbolizes  capture,  and  is  usualiy  done  by  touching  with 
the  hand;  it  may  be  done  in  certain  games  by  hitting  the  player  with 
a  ball,  or  it  may  be  required  to  catch  and  hold  a  player. 

There  are  ten  or  twelve  groups  of  tag  games,  the  games  of  each 
group  being  so  much  alike  that  they  may  be  considered  one  game 
with  slight  variations;  in  fact,  the  games  are  in  many  instances 
identical  but  the  names  unlike.  In  the  following  account  of  tag 
games  a  typical  game  of  each  group  is  described  and  others  of  the 
grouped  named,  with  reference  to  books  in  which  they  are  described. 

Fox  AND  Farmer. — The  players  stand  in  a  circle,  hands  at 
sides.  The  farmer  tries  to  tag  the  fox,  the  fox  runs  in  a  zigzag  manner 
among  the  players,  and  the  farmer  must  follow  in  exactly  the  same 
path.  When  the  farmer  catches  the  fox  the  teacher  appoints  two 
other  players  to  be  fox  and  farmer. 

In  this  game  a  runner  and  a  catcher  are  both  chosen  by  the 
teacher;  the  catcher  must  go  in  the  exact  path  of  the  runner,  and  the 
other  players  have  only  to  stand  and  look  on  while  the  chase  goes  on. 
It  is  suitable  for  special  cases  where  there  is  liability  to  overdo  and 
hence  where  the  teacher  should  control  every  detail  of  exertion. 
Other  similar  games  are: 

Follow  Chase,  4  Garden  Scamp,  1,  4        Hunt  the  Fox,  1,  4,  9 

The  next  group  of  tag  games  may  be  illustrated  by  Drop  the 
Handkerchief,  which  is  too  well  known  to  need  description  here. 
The  main  characteristics  are:  only  two  players  active  at  once,  each 
runner  chooses  in  some  manner  the  one  who  is  to  chase  him.  It  is 
much  like  the  preceding  group  in  lacking  vigor  but  is  more  interesting 
because  of  the  opportunity  to  choose.    The  group: 

Ball  Chase,  4  Have  You  Seen  My  Sheep,  1,  4,  12 

Center  Base,  4,  12  School  Room  Tag,  1,  4 

Drop  the  Handkerchief,  1,  2,  3,  4,  7,  9,  12 

Cat  and  Mouse. — Players  stand  in  a  circle  with  hands  grasped. 
One  player,  called  the  cat,  is  on  the  outside  at  first,  and  another, 
called  the  mouse,  is  within.  The  cat  tries  to  tag  the  mouse  and  the 
other  players  help  the  mouse  to  escape  by  letting  him  pass  under 
the  arms  while  the  cat  is  hindered  as  much  as  possible.     The  two 

67 


68  TllK    TEACHING    OF    PLAY 

players  who  let  the  cat  catch  the  mouse  must  he  cat  aud  mouse  uext 
time. 

Here  the  main  activity  is  still  limited  to  two  players  but  the 
others  have  a  part  and  the  course  of  the  jjame  determines  who  shall 
be  active  next.    The  grouyj: 

Bull  in  the  Riuu'.  ^2.  4  Line  Tnterrcreuce,  1,  ^2,  9 

Cat  and  :Mousc.  1,  ^2,  .>,  !),.b2,  14    Maze  Ta<--,  4 
Sheepfold,  7,  U.  14 

Snake  Tag. — All  the  players  exce])t  the  catcher  stand  in  single 
file  with  hands  on  the  shoulders  of  the  one  in  front.  The  one  at  the 
rear  of  the  line  is  the  one  to  be  caught.  The  catcher  tries  to  tag  him, 
while  all  the  line  of  players  tries  to  turn  so  as  to  keep  someone  or 
more  between  the  catcher  aud  his  prey,     (iaines  of  the  grouj): 

Fox  aud  (ieese,  4  Fox  and  Chickens,  '2 

Fox  and  (Jander,  .5  Ribbon's  End,  0 

Hawk  and  Hen.  U  Snake's  Tail,  !) 

Swedish  Fox  and  (ieese,  1  WhoCoes  Round  My  Stone  Wall  ,4 

Three  Deep. — This  game  is  known  in  ^•arious  places  by  the 
names  Ring  Tag,  Tierce,  Three  High,  Three  is  a  Crowd,  etc.  The 
players  form  a  circle,  number  by  ones  and  twos,  beginning  at  a  point 
designated  by  the  teacher;  then  each  mimber  one  is  directed  to  step 
in  front  of  the  number  two  at  his  right.  This  places  the  j)layers  in 
a  double  circle  facing  the  center.  Now  the  teacher  selects  two  who 
are  standing  together,  stations  one  of  these  in  front  of  some  line  of 
two,  making  one  line  of  three;  the  other  one  of  the  pair  is  "It." 
The  one  who  is  "  It "  may  tag  only  the  rear  one  of  a  line  of  three,  and 
there  is  only  one  such  line  at  a  time.  The  player  who  finds  himself 
at  the  rear  of  a  line  of  three  may  be  tagged  until  he  runs  in  front  of 
another  line;  then  he  is  safe.  Each  line  should  take  a  step  back  as 
a  player  goes  in  front,  to  kcc])  the  circle  the  original  si/.c.  .\  circle 
drawn  on  the  floor  helj)s  the  players  to  kec])  in  good  position.  .Vs 
soon  as  a  player  is  tagged  he  is  "It,"  and  the  one  who  lagged  him 
must  go  in  front  of  a  line  or  he  may  be  tagged  again. 

Here  we  still  have  only  two  who  are  vigorously  active  at  any 
moment  but  unlike  all  the  preceding  the  runner  can  become  safe  aud 
another  j)layer  become  rumier  at  any  instant,  keeping  all  alert,  and 
the  rule  that  the  one  tagged  may  turn  at  once  and  tag  the  one  who 
tagged  him  unless  he  runs  to  safety  makes  the  play  continuous.  The 
result  is  that  this  grouj)  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  useful  of 
the  tag  games.  Of  the  following.  Hound  and  Kal)l)il  is  sinij)ler  and 
Third  Alan  more  complex  than  the  one  just  described: 

Co-ed  Tag,  '2  Queen  and  Attendants,  0 

Hound  and  Rabbit,  4  Rabbit's  Xest,  5 

Last  Man,  4,  13  Three  Deej),  1,  ^2,  .S,  4,  !) 

Fartncr  Tag,  4  Third  Man,  4,  13 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  69 

Circle  Ball. — The  players  stand  in  a  circle,  the  one  who  is 
"It"  within.  The  players  in  the  circle  have  a  basketball  or  similar 
object  which  they  pass  freely  from  one  to  another  in  any  order  to 
keep  it  away  from  the  one  w^ho  is  "It."  If  the  player  within  can  get 
possession  of  the  ball  or  can  tag  anyone  who  is  holding  it,  he  is  free; 
in  the  former  case  the  one  touching  the  ball  last  is  "It"  in  his  place; 
in  the  latter  case  the  one  tagged  is  "It."  When  the  number  is  too 
great  to  make  it  busy  enough  for  all,  the  circle  may  be  changed  to 
two  circles  with  a  game  played  in  each  one,  or  two  players  may  be 
"It"  in  the  same  circle.    A  player  kicking  the  ball  is  declared  "It." 

Here  the  only  person  who  can  be  tagged  at  any  moment  is  the 
one  who  is  touching  a  chosen  object.  The  rapid  passing  of  this  object 
among  the  players  makes  the  game  interesting  and  active.  The 
group : 

Bag  Tag,  1  Handkerchief  Tag,  2 

Cap  Tag,  '2  Sitting  Tag,  2 

Center  Catch  Ball,  4  Sitting  Down  Circle  Ball,  ^2 

Circle  Ball,  ^2,  9  Tag  Ball,  6 

Dumb-bell  Tag,  4  Token  Tag,  IS 

Duck  on  the  Rock. — A  large  stone  is  called  the  rock;  each 
player  has  a  stone  the  size  of  the  fist  and  called  a  duck.  About 
twenty  feet  away  from  the  rock  a  line  is  drawn  for  a  goal.  One  player 
is  "It;"  he  places  his  stone  on  the  rock  and  the  other  players  stand 
behind  the  goal  line  and  try  to  knock  it  off  with  their  stones.  When 
a  player  has  thrown,  he  can  have  a  chance  to  throw  again  only  by 
getting  his  stone  and  returning  to  the  goal  without  being  tagged. 
The  one  who  is  "It"  may  not  tag  anyone  until  that  one  has  touched 
his  stone  to  pick  it  up;  he  may  then  be  tagged  any  time  before  he 
reaches  the  goal.  If  a  player  succeeds  in  knocking  the  duck  off  the 
rock,  no  one  may  be  tagged  until  the  one  who  is  "It"  has  replaced 
it.  If  two  stones  that  have  been  thrown  lie  touching  each  other, 
they  may  be  taken  again  and  the  owners  may  not  be  tagged. 

This  game  is  played  indoors  by  using  a  circle  on  the  floor  to 
represent  the  rock,  a  basketball  to  represent  the  duck,  and  bean 
bags  for  stones. 

Several  other  games  resemble  Duck  on  the  Rock  in  that  players 
in  goal  cannot  be  tagged: 

Exchange  Tag,  1,4,  12  Scat,  i) 

Hang  Tag  (Cats),  1,  2,  4,  5  Twelve  O'Clock  at  Night,  1 

Squat  Tag,  1,  4,  14  Wood  Tag,  1,  4,  9 

Stand  Ball. — Here  players  are  tagged  by  hitting  them  with  a 
ball.  A  large  and  soft  ball  is  best,  such  as  an  indoor  baseball,  but  a 
basket  or  volley  ball  may  be  used.  The  ball  is  tossed  up  and  the  one 
who  is  "It"  runs  and  gets  it.     As  soon  as  he  gets  it  he  should  call 


70  THE   TEACHING    OF    PLAY 

"Stand."  At  this  word  all,  including  the  thrower,  must  stand  still 
while  he  throws  it  at  some  })layer.  One  may  dodge  but  must  not 
move  either  foot.  The  one  hit  is  "It"  unless  some  other  player 
moves  his  feet  to  dodge  the  hall.  The  umpire  calls  out  who  is  "It" 
and  this  one  runs  and  gets  the  ball,  calls  "Stand"  and  throws  at  the 
others  as  before. 

Tagging  with  a  thrown  ball  is  the  ])cculiarity  of  the  group: 

All  Run,  4  Captain  and  Attendant,  9 

Ball  Puss,  4  Stand  Hall  or  Hall  Stand,  1,  .S.  4 

Hat  Ball,  U,  14  Spud,  4 

Tree  Ball,  3 

The  Kixg's  Land. — A  space  is  marked  off  and  called  "The 
King's  Land."  The  one  who  is  "It"  is  the  king.  The  players  trespass 
on  the  King's  Land  and  he  tries  to  tag  them.  The  first  one  tagged 
has  to  be  "It"  in  his  place.  Sometimes  the  players  march  up  to  the 
border,  singing: 

"I'm  on  the  King's  land,  the  Kijig  is  n't  home. 
The  King  can't  catch  me  till  I  say  'Come.'" 
At  the  word  "Come"  the  king  gives  chase. 

Several  games  like  this  make  up  what  may  be  called  the  "teasing 
group,"  the  main  })eculiarity  being  the  teasing  and  tantalizing  of  the 
one  who  is  "It." 

Barley  Break,  4  Daddy  on  the  Castle,  "2,  5 

Baste  the  Bear,  1,  ;},  4,  i)  Klondike,  14 

Tom  Tiddler's  Cronnd.  1,  4,  5 

A  few  uni(|ue  forms  of  tag  games  are  good: 

Cross  Tag,  I,  4  Last  Couple  Out,  1,  "2,  4,  ') 

Double  Tag,  2  Last  Pair  Pass,  3,  J) 

Jai)anese  Tag,  1,  2,  4  Shadow  Tag,  4,  5 

The  next  group  of  tag  games  illustrates  the  transition  stage 
between  the  individualism  of  the  young  child  and  the  tendency  to 
team  play  that  becomes  prominent  in  adolescence.  In  some  of  these 
games  sides  are  chosen,  but  they  are  not  permanent,  the  players 
changing  from  side  to  side  as  they  are  tagged.  In  others  the  game 
starts  as  in  the  individual  games,  with  one  player  "  It  "  but  the  players 
he  tags  are  joined  with  him  in  tagging  the  rest. 

Pull  Away. — This  is  i)robably  the  most  widely  known  and 
universally  played  of  all  the  games  of  children.  It  is  known  in  various 
countries  by  various  names,  including  Hill  Dill.  Riisliiiig  Bases, 
Caesar's  Army,  King  Senio,  etc.,  etc. 

A  considerable  space  is  marked  off  at  each  end  of  the  playing 
space  for  goals  or  l)ases;   the  space  between  is  where  most  of  the  jilay 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  71 

takes  place.  The  one  who  is  "It"  stands  in  the  middle  ground  and 
calls  "Pull  Away,"  or  some  other  phrase  that  is  understood,  and  all 
of  the  players,  who  have  taken  places  in  one  of  the  goals,  must  in 
answer  to  the  call  run  across  to  the  other  goal.  All  those  tagged  join 
the  original  tagger  and  help  to  tag  the  rest,  who  must  run  across 
again  when  the  call  is  repeated.  The  game  continues  till  all  are 
caught,  when  the  first  one  tagged  is  "It"  for  the  next  game. 
Other  games  of  this  group: 

Black  Man,  9  Enchanted  Ground,  9 

Black  Tom,  4  Flowers  and  the  Wind,  4 

Bugaboo,  I'i  Fourth  of  Julv,  12 

Black  and  White,  1,  4,  6—  Hill  Dill,  1,  4,"  5 

Bird  Catchers,  9  Musical  Fox,  9 

Catch  of  Fish,  1,  3,  4—  Puss  in  a  Circle,  4,  5,  9 

Fisherman,  6,  12  Red  Lion,  4 

Chickidy  Hand,  4  Snatch  the  Bean  Bag,  5 

Chinese  Wall,  4  Square  Ball,  4 

Dodge  Ball,  1,  2,  4,  5,  6,  9  Stone,  1,  4,  9 

Dare  Base,  1  Trades,  1,  3,  4,  5,  12 

Wolf,  1,  3,  4,  5,  7 

Team  Games  of  Tag 

These  games  become  popular  as  children  reach  the  age  when 
loyalty  to  a  team  is  prominent,  and  they  no  longer  are  satisfied  to 
change  back  and  forth  from  one  side  to  another.  Here  players  wdio 
are  tagged  are  imprisoned  until  the  close  of  the  game,  unless  their 
teammates  release  them,  except  in  a  few  cases  where  scores  are  made 
instead. 

Prison  Base,  or  Prisoners'  Base. — Sides  are  chosen  and  two 
large  spaces  marked  oft'  for  goals  at  the  ends  of  the  playing  space. 
Near  each  goal  is  the  prison,  in  which  this  side  keeps  its  prisoners. 
Any  player  out  of  his  goal  may  be  tagged  by  any  opponent  who  left 
his  goal  afterwards.  Prisoners  are  released  by  being  tagged  by  their 
team-mates;  when  thus  released  both  the  prisoner  and  the  player 
who  released  him  are  free  to  return  without  being  tagged. 

Stealing  Sticks. — This  is  a  modification  of  the  preceding  game 
in  which  six  sticks  or  other  small  objects  are  placed  in  each  goal,  and 
it  is  the  object  of  each  side  to  steal  the  sticks  of  the  opponents.  Any 
player  entering  the  opponents'  goal  and  getting  hold  of  a  stick  before 
he  is  tagged  is  free  to  take  it  to  his  own  goal. 

Relievo. — The  game  described  under  this  name  as  a  goal  game 
is  also  played  between  two  teams  of  players,  the  players  being  tagged 
when  found,  instead  of  seeing  who  can  touch  the  goal  first. 


72  THE    TEACHIXfi    OF    I'LAV 

Progressuk  Dodck  Ball.-  This  is  a  team  jjanie  with  three 
teams  of  players  named  the  red,  white  and  blue.  These  three  teams 
oeeupy  three  e(|ual  (ii\isi<nis  of  the  Hoor,  marked  out  heforehaiid.  and 
the  game  is  jjhiyed  in  three  equal  periods  of  time.  In  the  first  period 
the  white  team  is  in  tlie  middle  space,  in  the  second  the  red,  aiul  in 
the  third  the  blue.  The  two  end  teams  throw  at  the  players  of  the 
middle  team,  and  the  middle  team  at  the  end  team.s.  A  score  is  kept 
for  each  team,  one  score  for  each  opponent  hit.  To  score  a  hit  the 
hall  nuist  hit  the  player  before  strikinji,'  the  lloor;  il  uia\-  be  caii.uht 
on  the  bound  to  get  possession  of  it  for  throwing.  At  the  end  of  the 
three  jjeriods  the  .scores  are  added  up  and  the  team  with  the  highest 
score  is  the  winner. 

Other  games  of  this  class: 

Howl  iiall,  1  Trisoncr's  IJase,  4 

("lub  Snatch.  4  Scouts,  1 

Double  Dodge  Ball,  4  Tag  and  Flag,  !) 

Every  Man  in  His  Own  Den,  4 

Miss  Bancroft  describes  5  forms  of  Prisoner's  base,  varying 
according  to  the  age  of  pupils  and  size  of  grounds. . 


Chapter  Twelve 

BASEBALL  GAMES 

This  group  of  games  includes  the  American  game  of  Baseball, 
the  English  game  of  Cricket,  and  several  minor  games  based  on  these 
two  but  suited  to  younger  players  and  to  less  favorable  conditions. 


DIAGRAM  OF  BASEBALL  FIELD 
BS,  backstop;    PB,  PB,  players'  benches;    CL,  CL,  coachers'  lines;    FL,  FL,  foul 
lines;    HB,  home  base;    C,  catcher;    U,  umpire;     P,  pitcher;    SS,  short  stop; 
B,  base;    Bm,  baseman;    RF,  right  fielder;    CF,  center  fielder;    LF,  left  fielder. 


Baseball 

The  Field. — Baseball  needs  a  level  field  three  hundred  feet 
square,  but  it  is  often  played  on  a  smaller  space.  A  square  whose 
sides  are  ninety  feet  is  marked  out  on  the  field  and  is  called  the 
"diamond."     Opposite  one  corner  of  the  diamond  and  ninety  feet 

73 


74  THE    TEACHING    OK    PLAY 

(or  less)  from  it  is  placed  a  "backstop,"  which  is  a  wide  frame  covered 
with  boards  or  wire  netting'  to  stop  halls  not  stopped  In'  the  catcher. 
At  the  corner  of  the  diamond  nearest  the  backstop  is  a  slab  of  wood 
or  rnbl)er  set  even  with  the  top  of  the  jironnd  and  called  "the  home 
base."  The  other  corners  of  the  diamond  are  called  first,  second  and 
third  bases,  going"  to  right  from  the  home  base;  and  each  of  these  is 
marked  by  a  canvas  l)ag  fifteen  inches  scpiare  fastened  by  an  iron 
stake  that  is  entirely  under  ground. 

ScoKiNCJ. — A  "run"  is  a  complete  circuit  of  the  bases,  whether 
made  all  at  once  or  in  stages.  The  score  is  the  number  of  runs  made 
by  each  team.  The  team  making  the  largest  score  in  nine  "innings" 
wins  the  game.  When  each  team  has  liad  a  turn  "at  bat,"  it  is  called 
one  inning;  a  side  remains  at  bat  until  three  men  have  been  "put 
out.  "  If  tiie  score  at  the  end  of  nine  imiings  is  a  tie,  play  continues 
until  one  team  has  a  greater  score  than  the  other  in  even  innings. 
When  weather  or  any  other  cau.se  stops  the  game  before  nine  innings 
are  played,  the  score  at  the  end  of  the  last  complete  inning  is  taken 
as  the  final  score,  provided  that  at  least  five  innings  have  been  j)layed. 

Teams.- — Each  team  consists  of  nine  men.  The  teams  have 
turns  at  bat  in  alternation,  which  team  shall  bat  first  being  decided 
by  the  captain  of  the  home  team.  The  players  of  tlu^  side  at  bat 
occupy  the  players'  bench  (see  diagram),  except  one  man  who  is 
batting,  others  who  may  be  on  bases,  and  one  or  two  who  are  allowed 
to  stand  on  the  outer  sides  of  the  diamond  to  "coach"  the  base 
rumiers.  The  other  team  is  in  tiie  field  trying  to  j)re\ent  the  team 
at  bat  from  making  runs.  The  diagram  indicates  the  approxinuite 
positions  of  the  men  in  the  field. 

Officials. — The  officials  of  the  game  are  an  umpire  and  a 
scorer.  The  .scorer  keeps  a  list  of  the  men  of  each  team  in  their  order 
of  batting,  as  fixed  by  the  captains,  and  keej)s  a  record  of  the  gauie 
according  to  the  decision  of  the  umpire.  The  umpire  makes  all  de- 
cisions, including  such  as  the  following:  whether  tlie  ball  is  proj)erly 
delivered  by  the  pitcher;  whether  a  batted  ball  is  fair  or  foul;  whether 
a  batter  or  base  runner  is  out  or  safe;  and  whether  a  run  shall  be 
scored.  Sometimes  there  are  two  umpires,  one  to  decide  points  at 
the  home  base  and  the  other  at  the  other  ba.ses. 

Stuikes  and  Balls. — The  first  man  a  I  bat  takes  his  place  beside 
the  home  ba.se,  facing  the  i)itchcr,  with  a  bal  in  his  hands.  'I'he 
umpire  may  stand  behind  either  the  i)itcher  or  the  catcher.  It  i>  the 
duty  of  the  liatsman  to  bat  the  ball  thrown  by  the  pitcher,  if  it  is 
good,  and  then  to  run  to  first  base  as  fast  as  possible.  If  the  batsman 
strikes  at  the  pitched  ball  and  misses  it,  or  if  it  i)as>es  o\-er  the  home 
ba.se  at  a  height  between  the  batsman's  knee  and  shoulder,  the  iim- 
])ire  declares  a  "strike."  If  this  occurs  three  times  the  batsman  is 
out,  pro\iding  flie  catcher  catches  the  ball  on  the  third  strike.     U 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  75 

he  fails  to  catch  it  after  the  third  strike,  the  batsman  may  run  to 
first  base,  and  is  safe  if  he  reaches  it  before  the  ball  is  held  by  an 
opponent  touching  the  base.  If  the  ball  thrown  by  the  pitcher  does 
not  pass  within  the  limits  defining  a  strike,  the  umpire  declares  it  a 
"ball."  Four  balls  entitle  the  batsman  to  first  base.  If  the  pitcher 
hits  the  batsman  the  latter  is  given  first  base,  providing  he  tries  to 
avoid  being  hit,  and  does  not  strike  at  the  ball.  If  the  pitcher  makes 
a  movement  as  if  to  deliver  the  ball  to  the  batsman  and  then  does  not 
do  so,  it  is  called  a  "balk"  and  each  base  runner  is  advanced  one  base. 

Fair  Hits  and  Foul  Balls. — If  the  batsman  hits  a  pitched 
ball  so  that  it  goes  forward  between  the  lines  to  first  and  third  base 
or  their  extensions  (called  the  foul  lines),  the  umpire  declares  it  a 
"fair  hit,"  and  the  batsman  becomes  a  base  runner.  If  the  batted 
ball  is  caught  by  a  fielder  before  it  hits  the  ground  the  batsman  is 
out.  Such  a  ball  is  called  a  "fly  ball."  If  it  strikes  the  ground  and 
is  afterward  thrown  to  first  base  and  caught  there  before  the  runner 
reaches  it  he  is  out.  This  applies  to  first  base  only;  on  the  other 
bases  the  runner  must  be  tagged  with  the  ball;  he  may  be  tagged 
out  before  reaching  first  base  if  it  is  more  convenient  to  do  so. 

If  the  batsman  hits  the  ball  so  that  it  goes  anywhere  outside  of 
the  limits  of  a  fair  hit,  the  umpire  declares  a  "foul  ball."  Fouls  count 
as  strikes  until  two  strikes  have  been  called,  but  are  not  counted 
afterward.  A  foul  caught  more  than  ten  feet  away  from  the  home 
base  puts  the  batsman  out  as  in  the  case  of  any  fly  ball.  A  ball  is 
foul  if  it  strikes  in  the  diamond  and  then  rolls  out  between  home  base 
and  first  or  third;    it  is  fair  if  it  strikes  out  and  rolls  in. 

If  a  man  makes  an  entire  circuit  of  the  bases  on  one  hit,  it  is 
called  a  "home  run,"  and  is  considered  a  remarkable  play,  but  it 
counts  only  one  score.  If  a  batsman  makes  a  fair  hit  while  a  runner 
is  occupying  first  base,  such  runner  must  go  to  second  to  make  room 
for  the  batsman.  This  is  called  a  "forced  run."  Such  a  runner  need 
not  be  tagged,  but  is  out  if  the  ball  is  caught  by  an  opponent  on  the 
base  before  he  reaches  it. 

Base  Runners. — A  base  runner  occupying  any  base  may  run 
to  the  next  base  whenever  he  thinks  that  he  has  time  to  do  so  before 
the  opponents  can  throw  the  ball  there  to  intercept  him.  Whenever 
a  base  runner  is  tagged  with  the  ball  while  off  his  base  he  is  out,  unless 
the  player  tagging  him  drops  the  ball.  Base  runners  may  not  run 
on  a  fly  ball  nor  on  a  foul.  If  tagged  off  their  bases  w^hen  a  fly  is 
caught  they  are  out;  in  the  case  of  a  foul  they  may  run  back  to  the 
bases  from  which  they  came.  Notice  that  a  runner  reaching  any  base 
except  the  first  must  be  tagged  with  the  ball  to  be  put  out;  exceptions 
to  this  rule  are  the  cases  of  forced  runs  and  fly  balls  that  are  caught.* 


*Baseball  Guide.    Spalding's  Athletic  Library,  No.  L 

How  to  Play  Baseball.     Spalding's  Athletic  Library,  Nos.  20-Z,  223  to  233. 


76 


Tiir:  tkachint;  of  r>i.\v 


Indoor  Basehall.  Indoor  l)as»'l)all  is  |)nictically  tlic  saiiK'  as 
the  outtloor  jiaiiie,  hut  is  played  indoors  with  a  soft  hall  ahout  four 
iiK'iies  in  diameter,  a  short  iif^ht  hat,  and  on  a  diamond  very  mueh 
re(hice(|  in  size.     A  tew  ciian^es  in  the  rules  are  made  necessary  hy 

llic  difl'creiit  coiidit  i()ii>  indoors.* 


Minor  A.mkrkan   (Iamks 

The  rules  of  hasehall  have  heen  dcxcloped  hy  the  cooperation 
of  the  professional  hasehall  leajfues,  and  are  loo  technical  and  com- 
plicatetl  for  children.  American  hoys  play  a  lar^e  mimher  of  i^ames 
of  this  class  that  are  simpler  forms  of  IJic  national  uanic.  A  few 
typical  <i,ames  of  this  sort  are  as  follows: 

Rotation. — This  game  is  the  nearest  to  hasehall  of  any  of  the 
minor  games  of  hoys.  It  is  known  l)y  se\eral  names,  such  as  Scruh. 
Work  I  J),  and  Rounders.  Instead  of  two  teams  in  which  each  man 
has  a  ])ermanent  position,  the  players  occupy  all  the  different  posi- 
tions in  the  field  an<l  at  hat  in  rotation.  When  one  is  put  out,  he  goes 
to  the  lowest  position  in  the  field  and  gradually  works  up,  as  other 
men  are  put  out,  through  the  various  fielding  and  hase  |)Ositions,  and 
finally  hecomes  pitcher  and  then  catcher,  after  which  he  goes  in  to 
hat  again  when  the  next  man  is  put  out.  The  field  and  the  play- 
ing rules  are  the  same  as  for  hasehall,  hut  there  are  usually  no 
officials. 

One  Old  Cat. — This  game  is  like  rotation  in  many  ways,  hut 
it  may  he  played  hy  two  teams.  It  is  suitahle  for  a  smaller  mimher 
of  jjlayers,  as  there  is  only  one  hase  Ixvsides  the  home  hase.  The 
hatsman  runs  to  first  hase  and  hack  again  to  make  a  run.  Two  or 
three  arc  at  t»at  and  the  others  are  out. 

L()\(;  Ball. — This  is  similar  to  One  Old  Cat,  hut  has  heen 
l)lanncd  to  play  indoors,  gymnasium  mats  often  scrxing  as  hases,  and 
the  soft  indoor  hall  heing  u.sed.  Every  hit  is  a  fair  hit,  since  there 
are  no  foul  lines.  The  second  l)ase,  or  long  hase.  a>  it  i>  callc(l,  may 
he  in  any  direction,  most  often  directly  heliind  the  pitcher.  Long 
hall  is  usually  played  hetween  two  teams  of  from  three  to  ten  players 
each,  hut   the  j)lan  of  rotation  may  he  followed.     It  is  the  gauR'  of 


H 


11. 


I'  I'. 


DIACirVM   I'OK  LONG  H.VLL 

lininr  l>ii>c;    I*  |{,  pitciuTS  l)()x;    I.,  li,  long  lja.se. 


"Spalding's  .Miilctic  Lil)raiy,  No.  !». 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  77 

this  class  most  played  by  girls.  Several  players  may  occupy  the  long 
base  at  the  same  time.  By  agreement  the  players  may  be  put  out 
by  hitting  them  with  the  ball. 

Boston  Ball. — The  special  peculiarity  of  this  game  consists 
in  the  use  of  a  basketball  which  is  thrown  by  the  batsman,  no  bat 
being  used.  This  plan  does  away  with  the  necessity  of  a  pitcher,  and 
the  catcher  has  only  to  act  as  a  baseman  at  the  home  base.  Four 
bases  are  used,  and  the  players  are  put  out  and  runs  made  as  in  the 
<.       regular  game.    This  is  also  played  by  girls. 

Fly  in. — This  form  of  the  game  has  grown  up  in  certain  city 
playgrounds.  The  field  has  the  usual  form  with  four  bases,  but  is 
smaller;  a  light  bat  is  used  and  either  an  indoor  ball  or  a  tennis  ball. 
The  catcher  is  an  older  player  who  holds  his  place  permanently  and 
acts  as  umpire.  Five  men  are  sent  to  the  players'  bench,  and  these 
bat  in  turn.  The  game  proceeds  as  in  Rotation,  excepting  that  the 
catcher  does  not  go  to  bat,  and  that  any  fielder  catching  a  fly  goes 
directly  to  bat  in  place  of  the  one  he  has  put  out,  without  waiting 
for  his  turn  in  rotation. 

German  Bat  Ball. — Some  features  of  baseball,  tennis,  and 
basketball  are  introduced  here.  The  batsman  tosses  up  the  ball  and 
bats  it,  or  there  may  be  a  pitcher.  He  must  then  try  to  make  a  com- 
plete circuit  of  the  bases  without  stopping,  the  opponents  trying  to 
put  hini  out.  He  may  be  put  out  only  by  being  hit  by  the  ball,  which 
he  may  dodge.  The  opponents  must  not  run  with  the  ball  but  may 
pass  it  from  one  to  another. 

The  following  games  belong  to  this  group: 

Ball  and  Bases,  1  German  Ball,  1,  3, 

Batting  the  Ball,  5  Hang  Baseball,  3 

Boston  Ball,  1  Kicking  Baseball,  '2 

Fungo,  7  Long  Ball,  5 

One  Old  Cat,  5,  7 

English  Games  of  Bat  and  Ball 

The  most  important  of  the  English  games  is  Cricket,  which  is 
less  complicated  than  Baseball,  and  involves  less  team  play,  but  it 
requires  quite  as  much  individual  skill.  One  point  in  its  favor  is  that 
it  does  not  necessitate  quite  so  large  a  field  as  Baseball. 

Cricket. — In  cricket  there  are  two  bases  sixty-six  feet  apart. 
At  each  base  is  a  wicket,  which  consists  of  three  posts  twenty-seven 
inches  high,  standing  so  close  together  that  a  ball  cannot  go  between. 
On  top  of  the  posts  are  placed  two  four-inch  bits  of  wood,  called 
"bails."  Four  feet  in  front  of  the  wicket  (that  is,  toward  the  other 
wicket),  is  a  line  to  limit  the  position  of  the  batsman. 


78 


THE    TEAfHINC    OF    I'LAY 


pc 


•■2-2  van  Is 


DI.UillAM  OF  (  UK  KKT  (illOlXD 
w.  wicket;  be.  bowling  crease;  pc,  popping  crease. 


The  pilclirr.  who  is  called  a  "howk-r"  in  cricket,  stands  l)e.side 
the  wicket  and  throws  the  ball  to  the  batsman,  who  stands  in  front 
of  the  other  wicket.  The  object  of  the  batsman  is  to  bat  the  ball  and 
then  to  run  to  the  opposite  base.  .\  sec-ond  batsman  stands  at  the 
other  base,  and  they  exciian^e  i)laces.  Every  hit  is  a  fair  hit.  The 
batsman  must  also  i)revent  the  i)itche(l  ball  from  striking  the  wicket; 
if  it  does,  a  l)ail  will  fall  off  and  then  the  batsman  is  out.  Men  are 
put  out  by  either  catchinji  a  fly  ball  or  knocking  oti"  the  wicket.  In- 
stead of  tagging  the  runner  with  the  ball,  the  catcher,  who  is  called 
the  "wicket  keeper,"  knocks  off  the  bail  with  the  ball  in  his  hand. 
The  two  batsmen  may  make  two  or  more  runs  on  a  hit  if  th(>y  have 
time,  or  they  may  not  run  if  the  hit  is  too  short. 

The  bat  u.sed  is  a  flat  one,  making  it  easier  to  place  the  liall  in 
different  directions.  The  fielders  are  scattered  in  various  directions 
from  the  batsman.  Kleven  men  constitute  a  team,  and  an  inning 
continues  until  the  entire  team  has  baited  in  turn.  This  makes  the 
game  slower  than  })aseball,  and  since  the  distance  to  run  is  so  short 
the  .score  is  nuich  higher,  sometimes  amounting  to  several  hundred 
in  a  game.    Two  innings  usually  constitute  a  game. 

Two  Old  (\\t. — This  is  similar  to  cricket  without  the  wickets. 
There  is  usually  a  depres.sion  in  the  ground  in  the  j)lace  of  the  wicket, 
and  from  this  fact  it  is  sometimes  called  "Hole  liall."  The  base  is 
tagged  with  the  ball  in  the  hands  of  a  player  to  put  the  runner  out. 

()hi<;in  of  tuk  (Ia.mks 
Modern  gani(>s  of  bat  and  ball  liaxc  been  dcvcloix-d  by  coinbm- 
ing  an  ancient  ball  play  mu<h  like  (.olf  with  the  use  of  bases  or  goals 
and  the  practice  of  tagging;  l)oth  of  thes(>  being  prominent  features 
of  the  games  of  children.  \u  old  game  of  Knglish  children  called 
"Four  Corners,"  suggests  what  may  have  been  the  starting  point  in 
the  evolution  of  these  games.  Four  Corners  is  nothing  more  or  less 
than  the  ancient  game  of  "Fussy  Wants  a  Corner"  with  one  addi- 
tion; the  out-player  has  a  small  soft  ball  which  he  tas.ses  to  any  one 
of  the  players  on  the  bases;  the  player  to  whom  it  is  tossed  strikes 
at  the  ball  with  the  open  hand,  and  then,  whether  he  hits  it  or  not. 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  79 

each  player  must  run  to  the  next  base.  The  out-player  picks  up 
the  ball  as  quickly  as  possible  and  tries  to  hit  a  runner  with  it  before 
he  reaches  a  base.  Hitting  a  player  with  a  thrown  ball  is  a  form 
of  tag  common  in  many  simple  games. 

A  century  ago  English  boys  were  playing  an  outdoor  game 
much  like  this  which  they  called  "Feeder."  There  are  several  bases 
in  a  circular  course  and  the  batsman  sometimes  used  a  small  club. 
An  odd  feature  of  the  game  was  the  fact  that  all  the  players  were  in 
but  one,  which  makes  it  much  like  the  individual  tag  games. 

Next  came  the  regular  use  of  the  bat.  American  boys  at  the 
time  of  the  Revolution  often  played  a  game  similar  to  One  Old  Cat, 
using  a  soft  ball  and  tagging  the  runner  either  by  touching  him  with 
the  ball  in  hand  or  by  throwing  it  at  him  and  hitting  him  with  it. 
This  developed  into  the  game  of  Rotation  with  three,  four  and  some- 
times five  bases.  About  1830,  players  began  to  form  permanent 
teams  and  play  match  games  under  the  name  of  baseball.  In  the 
seventies  the  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  balls  resulted  in 
the  making  of  a  ball  so  hard  that  the  earlier  method  of  hitting  a 
player  to  tag  him  had  to  be  dropped.  Up  to  this  time  the  pitcher 
was  allowed  only  to  toss  the  ball  to  the  batsman,  but  after  1875 
throwing  was  permitted.  This  soon  led  to  the  use  of  masks,  gloves, 
and  breast  protectors,  and  caused  the  pitcher's  base  to  be  moved 
farther  away  from  the  batsman. 

Cricket  is  believed  to  have  arisen  from  an  ancient  game  called 
"Stool  Ball,"  played  in  England  in  the  Middle  Ages.  In  Stool  Ball 
one  player  who  was  said  to  be  "in"  stood  by  a  three-legged  stool 
which  he  tried  to  protect  while  the  other  players  threw  the  ball  at 
it.  The  in-player  made  a  score  for  every  time  he  hit  the  ball  with 
his  hand.  If  an  out-player  hit  the  stool  or  caught  a  hit  ball,  he  went 
in,  in  place  of  the  other.  Later  the  in-player  used  a  bat,  and  still 
later  the  stool  was  replaced  by  a  crude  form  of  wicket,  which  has 
gone  through  several  stages  before  reaching  the  modern  form.* 

Cricket  matches  were  played  with  permanent  teams  early  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  and  it  became  a  common  school  game  early 
in  the  nineteenth  century. 

We  see  from  this  historical  sketch  that  while  the  games  of  bat 
and  ball  arose  from  the  combining  of  elements  that  are  very  old,  the 
games  as  such  are  distinctly  modern;  in  fact  they  are  more  recent 
than  tennis,  hockey,  or  football. 


*Cassell:  Sports  and  Pastimes. 

Cricket  Guides,  Spalding's  Athletic  Library,  Xos.  3  and  277. 


Chapter  Thirteen 

TENNIS  (iAMKS 

Unlike  the  games  of  bat  and  ball,  the  tennis  uanies  seem  to  have 
little  or  no  resemblanee  to  the  elementary  games  of  children.  They 
are  prol)ably  descended  from  the  games  of  l)all  played  by  the  ancient 
(i reeks  and  Romans.  The  oldest  tennis  games  of  which  we  know  were 
were  played  in  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  in  much  the  same 
form  as  the  same  games  are  playetl  now.  The  two  oldest  tennis 
games  are  known  as  "Court  Tennis"  and  **Rac(|uets,"  and  the  tenni.s 
games  naturally  fall  into  two  groups,  known  as  the  net  games  and 
the  wall  games,  which  are  derived  from  these  two. 

The  Net  Games 

The  essential  characteristics  of  the  net  games  are  the  use  of  a 
net  stretched  across  the  middle  of  the  coiu't,  with  the  opposing 
players  on  opposite  sides  of  it,  and  the  batting  of  the  balls  back  and 
forth  across  the  top  of  the  net. 

("oiKT  Tennis. — Court  tennis,  the  oldest  known  tenuis  game, 
is  played  in  a  special  court  having  walls  of  stone,  a  roof,  and  galleries 
for  spectators  on  two  sides  of  the  playing  space.  It  is  the  most  com- 
plex game  known;  and  this,  in  addition  to  the  great  expense  of  build- 
ing the  court,  keeps  it  from  general  use.  There  are  probably  twenty 
of  these  courts  in  existence,  mostly  in  continental  l^urope. 

Lawn  Tennis 

Lawn  tennis  is  the  most  popular  of  all  tlu-  tennis  games.  It 
was  devised  by  an  English  army  officer  in  the  early  seventies,  some 
of  the  best  elements  of  court  teiniis  being  nMained  and  the  game 
much  simplified  and  jid.iptcd  to  outdoor  play.  Il  rapidly  gained 
ta\"or,  and  is  now    |)layc(l  in  all  cixili/t^l  countries. 

The  ('(^I'HT. — Lawn  Tenuis  is  j)laye(l  on  a  court  7<S  feet  long  ami 
36  feet  wide,  across  which  a  net  is  stretched  in  the  middle.  The  net 
is  .'Ji  2  f<'<'t  high  at  the  ends  and  3  feet  high  in  the  center.  The  names 
and  dimensions  of  the  various  parts  of  the  court  can  be  seen  best  in 
a  diagrau).  Courts  are  sometimes  laid  out  on  the  grass  of  a  well 
ke|)t  lawn,  and  sometimes  a  clay  court  is  made  and  kept  permanciill\' 
for  the  game.     The  lallcr  |)lan  i>  nio>l  coninion  in  the  western  states. 

The  Play.-  Lawn  'J'ennis  is  |)layed  with  a  hollow  rubber  ball 
'2' J  inches  in  diameter,  which  is  driven  with  a  form  of  bat  lalled  a 

80 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY 


81 


"racket,"  having  a  handle  about  a  foot  long  and  a  head  9  by  12  inches 
that  is  tightly  strung  with  gut.  The  object  of  the  game  is  to  bat  the 
ball  so  that  it  will  fall  in  the  court  on  the  other  side  of  the  net.  The 
ball  cannot  be  played  later  than  the  first  bound. 

Serving. — Serving  consists  in  tossing  the  ball  up  with  the  hand 
and  then  hitting  it  with  the  racket.  This  play  is  used  at  the  beginning 
of  the  game  and  after  each  point  won  or  lost.  The  rules  provide  that 
the  server  shall  stand  behind  the  back  line  of  the  court  between  the 
middle  and  the  allev,  and  must  serve  the  ball  so  that  it  will  fall  in 


Cos 


■o 

« 


C  xi 


gJS 


82  THE    TKACHIXf;    OF    IM.AV 

the  service  court  (liji<i()iuill.v  ()i)|)()sitc;  if  lie  t:iils  to  serve  the  l)all  in 
the  right  court,  he  has  a  second  trial;  if  lie  fails  in  this  he  scores  a 
point  for  the  opjjouents  and  proceeds  to  serve  again.  The  same 
player  continues  to  serve  until  a  ganie  is  won  or  lost,  beginning  at  the 
right  hand  sitie  and  serving  alternately  from  the  right  and  left  sides. 
He  may  not  at  any  time  serve  until  the  opponent  who  is  to  receive 
the  ball  is  ready.  When  the  game  is  finished,  the  other  side  .serves; 
if  two  on  a  side,  each  of  the  four  serves  in  regular  rotation.  If  a 
.served  ball  hits  the  net  and  still  goes  over  and  falls  in  the  right  court, 
it  is  calUxl  a  "net  ball"  and  the  serve  is  given  again  as  if  it  had  not 
occurred. 

Returni.vc  thk  15 all.  The  player  to  whom  the  ball  is  scrxcd 
mu.st  hit  it  on  the  first  bound  and  bat  it  over  the  net  .so  thai  it  will 
fall  in  the  court  on  the  other  side.  When  two  are  playing  on  each 
.side,  it  may  fall  anywhere  within  the  boundary  line  or  upon  them; 
when  only  one  player  is  on  a  side,  the  alleys  are  not  used  and  the  ball 
must  fall  in  the  '■27-foot  court. 

When  the  ball  has  been  once  returned,  it  is  jjlayed  again  in  the 
same  manner,  except  that  now  it  may  be  hit  before  it  stnko  the 
ground  if  the  player  prefers;  in  this  case  he  is  said  to  "volley"  the 
ball.  Such  play  continues  until  one  side  finally  fails  to  return  the 
ball  into  the  court;  the  side  tliu>  failing  loses  a  point,  and  it  is  scored 
in  favor  of  the  opponents. 

The  Score. — A  "game"  is  complete  when  one  side  luo  won 
four  points,  and  a  "set"  when  one  side  has  won  six  games;  this 
general  rule  has  two  exceptions.  When  each  si«le  has  won  three 
points,  it  indicates  a  quality  of  play  so  evenly  balanced  that  it  is  not 
fair  that  one  i)oint  more  sjudl  decide  it;  the  rules  |)rovide  that  the 
next  i)oint  shall  l>e  called  "advantage"  to  the  side  winning  it,  and  a 
.second  point  shall  be  necessary  to  win  the  game.  Likewise,  when 
each  side  has  won  ii\c  games,  it  is  prox  ided  that  the  next  game  won 
shall  be  called  "advantage  games,"  and  a  .second  game  nnist  be  won  to 
win  the  set.  To  win  a  match  one  side  must  win  two  .sets  out  of  three; 
in  .some  important  matches  it  is  agreed  to  play  three  out  of  five. 

The  manner  of  counting  is  peculiar,  having  been  taken  from 
court  tennis;  the  first  point  won  is  counted  l.>,  the  next  on<>  1.),  the 
third  and  fourth   points  each    10.     The  score  counts  up    l.>.  .'{<».  1<>. 

When  each  >ide  has  won   liir.'e  point>.   I  lie  eall   i>  "Deux,      the 
French  for  "vm-w,"    I  lie  next   point   i^  cmIIciI  "advantage  in"  if  won 
by  the  .server,  "ud\anlagc  out"  if  won  by  the  others.     If  the  jdayer 
winning  the  first  advantage  lo.ses  the  .second,  the  .score  goes  to  "  I  )eiix 
again;    this  may  hap|)en  any  numl)er  of  times. 

The  .score  "must  be  called  >o  often  in  tenuis  that  an  abbreviated 
method  of  speaking  the  score  is  used;  the  score  of  each  side  is  called 
without   >pcaking  the  names  of  the  sides,   the  .server's  .score  being 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  83 

mentioned  first.  For  example,  when  the  server  has  won  two  points 
and  the  opponents  one,  the  score  is  30-15;  if  the  server  has  one  and 
the  others  two,  it  is  15-30;  if  the  score  of  a  side  is  zero,  "love"  is 
called  instead,  as  15-love,  or  love-40.  An  even  score  is  called  "  15  all," 
"30  all,"  etc. 

Choice  and  Use  of  Courts. — At  the  beginning  of  a  match  the 
players  toss  for  choice  of  courts.  The  winner  of  the  toss  may  serve 
first  or  choose  the  side  he  prefers;  if  he  chooses  to  serve,  the  others 
may  choose  the  court.  In  common  practice  games  the  players  usually 
change  sides  of  the  court  every  set;  in  matches  the  rules  provide  that 
they  shall  change  after  the  first,  third,  and  each  succeeding  odd  game.* 

Minor  Net  Games 

Ping  Pong. — This  is  a  diminutive  game  of  lawn  tennis  played  on  a 
table,  with  net,  balls  and  rackets  smaller  to  suit  the  size  of  the  space. 

Badminton. — This  is  an  English  game  devised  before  lawn 
tennis.  It  is  played  like  lawn  tennis,  with  a  similar  court,  net  and 
racket,  but  instead  of  a  ball  a  piece  of  cork  with  feathers  attached  and 
called  a  "shuttlecock"  is  used.  This  will  not  bound,  so  it  is  neces- 
sary to  volley  every  stroke.  Badminton  is  played  extensively  in  the 
parks  in  London. 

Volley  Ball. — Volley  Ball  is  played  on  a  court  and  over  a  net, 
but  the  ball  used  is  similar  to  a  basketball,  only  lighter.  The  ball  is 
batted  with  the  open  hand  (one  or  both)  and  it  may  be  batted  by 
a  second  player  of  the  same  side, — a  play  prohibited  in  other  tennis 
games.  Any  number  can  play  on  a  side,  and  the  play  may  be  either 
largely  individual  or  largely  team  play,  the  latter  being  encouraged 
by  the  rule  permitting  two  or  more  of  the  same  side  to  bat  the  ball 
in  turn  before  it  passes  the  net.  Usually  the  server  is  limited  to  one 
trial,  but  the  other  players  of  his  side  may  help  the  ball  along  and 
over  the  net.  The  method  of  scoring  used  in  volley  ball  is  taken  from 
the  wall  group  of  games,  and  is  described  under  the  game  of  racquets. 
Volley  ball  is  a  very  useful  game  for  school  playgrounds,  since  it 
permits  varying  numbers  to  play  and  keeps  up  lively  interest  with- 
out requiring  fine  organization.  At  the  same  time,  organization  and 
team  play  will  win  over  individual  play.  Players  of  both  sexes  and 
difl^erent  sizes  can  play  in  the  same  game  without  danger  of  injury 
and  with  good  success. 

The  group  of  Net  Games: 

Badminton,  7        Fist  Ball,  3,  4         Lawn  Tennis,  7,  10,  'io 
Bound  Ball,  4       Hand  Tennis,  3      Volley  Ball,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  9 

*Lawn  Tennis  Guide.    Spalding's  Athletic  Library,  No.  4. 

F.  L.  and  H.  L.  Doherty:    Lawn  Tennis. 

Paret:  Lawn  Tennis. 

\aile:  Great  Tennis  Players. 


84 


THE    TEACIIIXG    OK    PLAY 


The  Wall  Games 
In  tlie  wall  ^aiues  there  is  no  net,  and  tlie  court  corresponds  to 
one  side  of  the  lawn  tennis  court;  the  ball  is  l)atted  against  the  front 
wall  and  is  jjlayed  by  the  opponents  when  it  falls  to  the  floor.  Both 
sides  nuist  use  the  same  court,  but  each  side  has  exclusive  rii>ht  to  it 
in  alternation,  the  side  not  in  play  bcinii  obli;j,('d  to  keep  out  of  the 
way. 

Racquets. — In   Raccpiets   the   playing    floor   is  surrouiuicd    l»y 
smooth  walls  of  stone  and  cement  '25  feet  high,  light  being  admit tc(| 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  85 

only  througli  the  roof.  The  front  wall  has  a  metal  base  ly^  feet  high, 
which  in  a  way  corresponds  to  the  net;  the  ball  must  not  strike  the 
metal,  or  the  point  is  lost.  A  line  is  drawn  across  the  front  wall  about 
eight  feet  up,  and  served  balls  must  strike  below  it.  The  floor  is 
marked  with  a  service  line  and  middle  line.  The  service  must  fall 
back  of  the  service  line  to  be  good,  but  a  receiver  may  play  a  poor 
service  if  he  chooses,  and  if  it  is  played  it  is  considered  good.  The 
ball  is  nearly  solid  rubber,  which  makes  the  play  very  fast.  The  ball, 
on  rebounding  from  the  front  wall,  may  strike  any  other  wall  before 
falling  into  the  court;  every  ball  that  hits  the  front  wall  above  the 
metal  base  is  therefore  good,  as  the  ball  cannot  fall  out  of  court. 

Scoring. — The  manner  of  scoring  in  Racquets  is  peculiar,  being 
something  like  lawn  tennis  and  something  like  baseball.  Points  won 
count  only  one  instead  of  15,  and  a  game  consists  of  either  15  or  21 
points.  This  makes  a  game  in  Racquets  about  as  long  as  a  set  in 
lawn  tennis. 

The  resemblance  to  baseball  is  seen  in  the  provision  of  the  rules 
that  only  the  server  may  make  a  score;  if  the  server  loses  a  point  the 
opponent  does  not  get  a  score,  but  the  loss  puts  the  server  "out," 
and  his  opponent  becomes  server.  This  manner  of  scoring  is  used  in 
Squash  and  Hand  Ball,  the  two  common  modifications  of  the  original 
game  of  racquets,  and  is  also  used  in  Volley  Ball.* 

Squash. — Squash  is  a  game  closely  resembling  Racquets,  but 
played  in  a  court  that  is  much  smaller  and  built  of  wood  instead  of 
stone.  This  makes  it  less  expensive,  so  that  Squash  courts  are  some- 
times built  in  fine  residences,  and  often  in  modern  gymnasium  build- 
ings.    The  playing  rules  of  the  two  games  are  practically  identical. 

Fives. — In  the  English  schools  for  boys,  where  many  of  our 
most  useful  and  popular  games  originated,  a  variation  of  Racquets 
called  Fives  is  played.  The  court  is  incomplete  as  far  as  walls  are 
concerned,  there  being  a  front  wall  and  a  part  of  the  side  walls,  but 
no  rear  wall.  The  courts  are  usually  built  in  a  row  with  a  common 
front  wall  and  roof  and  with  the  rear  of  the  courts  open.  The  ball  is 
played  with  the  open  hand  or  with  a  wooden  bat  shaped  like  a  racket, 
but  smaller. 

Hand  Ball. — Hand  Ball  is  played  on  the  same  plan  as  the  other 
games  of  this  group.  There  is  a  front  wall  only  in  most  cases,  and  the 
court  is  marked  out  with  lines  on  the  floor.  The  ball  is  played  with 
the  open  hand,  with  or  without  gloves.  A  lawn  tennis  ball  is  com- 
monly used.f 

Squash  Tennis. — This  is  played  on  a  handball  court  with  a 
racket  instead  of  the  hand,  but  with  the  same  rules  as  hand  ball. 


*Spalding's  Athletic  Library,  No.  194. 

tHand  Ball  Rules.    Mind  and  Body,  Vol.  11,  page  212, 


86  THE    TEACHIXG    OF    PLAY 

The   racket    i)cnnits   a    wider    reach    and    so    makes  tlie   fiaine   less 
violent. 

Pelota. — Pelota  is  a  form  of  wall-tennis  ])layed  in  Spanish 
countries.  There  is  a  wall  at  each  end  of  the  court,  hut  the  side  walls 
are  lacking.  The  bat  is  a  peculiar  structure  of  basket  work,  hollow 
on  one  side,  so  that  the  hall  may  be  scoope<l  up  with  it. 

Pallone.^TIus  is  an  Italian  game  in  which  there  is  one  end 
wall  and  one  side  wall.  The  ball  is  a  heavy  and  hard  one  and  is  Ijatted 
with  a  spherical  block  of  wood  that  is  held  by  a  handle  in  the  center, 
the  player  thrusting  his  hand  into  a  hole  in  the  side  of  the  sphere  to 
grasp  it.  This  game  is  claimed  by  some  to  be  the  descendant  of  the 
ancient  Ronum  game,  and  the  parent  of  all  the  other  tennis  games. 


Chapter  Fourteen 


BASKETBALL  GAMES 


As  in  the  case  of  the  Baseball,  we  have  here  several  games  re- 
lated to  and  often  played  as  a  preparation  for  the  major  game  of 
the  group.    This  makes  it  advisable  to  study  the  major  game  first. 


88  THE    TEACniXC    ()!•     IM.AV 

Baskictball 

Basketball  was  invented  less  than  twenty  years  ago,  hy  an 
instrnctor  in  a  gymnasinm,  with  the  object  of  securing  an  indoor 
game  that  would  liave  the  advantages  of  the  various  types  of  fo()ll)alI. 
with  the  dangers  of  football  eliminated  as  far  as  possil)le.  The  jjlan 
hit  upon  was  to  permit  advancing  I  he  l)ail  by  passing  it  with  hands 
only,  kicking  and  tackling  being  prohil)ite<i.  This  gives  the  game 
some  of  the  qualities  of  association  football  and  English  Rugby,  but 
perhaps  it  resembles  lacrosse  most  of  all. 

Thp:  Field. — Basketball  can  be  played  on  any  free  space  not 
exceeding  50  by  70  feet.  The  playing  space  may  occuj)y  the  whole 
room,  but  usually  a  boundary  line  is  drawn  three  feet  from  the  wall 
to  prevent  injury  to  j)layers  from  collisions  with  walls  or  apparatus. 
The  field  is  marked  as  shown  in  the  diagram.  The  gcmls  are  metal 
rings  IS  inches  in  diameter  and  i)laced  iiorizontally  ten  feet  above  the 
floor.  The  l)all  is  round  and  between  .SO  and  o'-i  inches  in  (-ircumfer- 
ence.     The  goals  are  attached  to  rigid  liack-boards  1  l\v  (i  feet. 

The  Play.— The  object  of  the  game  is  to  throw  [\\v  ball  into 
your  goal  as  many  times  as  possible  and  to  prevent  the  o])i)onents 
from  throwing  it  into  theirs.  The  ball  may  be  batted,  rolled,  bounced, 
or  thrown  in  any  tlirection  with  one  or  both  hands,  but  players  are 
not  allowed  lo  rim  with  it,  kick  it.  or  strike  it  with  closed  fists. 

ScoKi-XO. — -V  goal  thrown  from  the  field  during  play  counts  two 
points.  The  penalty  for  fouls  in  basketball  is  a  free  throw  for  the 
goal  from  a  distance  Of  lo  feet.  A  goal  thrown  in  this  way  .scores  one 
point.  If  a  foul  is  committed  against  a  player  while  he  is  throwing 
for  goal,  one  additional  point  is  awarded  his  side. 

.S.  game  is  wn)n  by  the  team  .scoring  tlie  greatest  number  of  points 
ill  two  halves  of  20  minutes  each.  Time  of  halves  may  be  lessened 
by  nnitual  agreement.  If  the  .score  is  a  tie  when  the  time  is  up,  the 
game  is  continued  until  one  side  scores  two  points  additional. 

()fei('L\ls. — The  officials  in  basketball  are  a  referee,  an  iimi>ire, 
a  scorer  and  a  timekeeper. 

The  referee  is  the  superior  officer  of  the  game.  He  sees  that  tlic 
goals,  ball  and  grounds  are  according  to  the  rules,  i)uts  the  ball  in 
play,  decides  at  all  times  to  whom  it  belongs  and  where,  and  has  power 
to  call  any  foul.  He  has  among  his  duties  the  notifying  of  the  scorer 
when  a  goal  is  made,  notifying  the  scorer  and  the  otfender  whenever 
a  foul  is  made,  and  IIh'  dis(|ii:ilif\  iiig  of  players  committing  certain 
fouls. 

The  umpire  has  in  g(Mieral  an  oversight  over  the  iikmi  ratlier  than 
the  ball,  but  he  may  call  any  foul  e\ce|>l  Ihn'c  or  four  s|)e(ially  re- 
.served  for  decision  of  the  referee. 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  89 

The  scorer  records  the  score  under  the  direction  of  the  referee. 

The  timekeeper  notes  when  the  game  starts  and  blows  his 
whistle  at  the  expiration  of  the  proper  time  for  the  half.  He  also 
takes  out  time  when  directed  to  do  so  by  the  referee. 

Teams. — Five  men  constitute  a  team,  divided  into  two  "for- 
wards," one  "center,"  and  two  "backs"  or  "guards."  The  forwards 
have  for  their  special  duty  to  throw  goals.  The  guards  oppose  the 
forwards  of  the  opposing  team  and  pass  the  ball  to  their  own  forwards 
whenever  they  can  get  possession  of  it. 

Toss-Up. — The  ball  is  put  in  play  at  the  beginning  of  the  game 
by  a  play  called  "toss-up."  One  player  from  each  team,  known  as 
the  "center,"  stands  in  the  small  circle  in  the  center  of  the  field 
facing  his  own  goal,  and  the  referee  tosses  the  ball  up  between  them. 
It  may  be  caught  or  batted  with  the  open  hand.  Each  of  the  two 
centers  jumps  upward  and  tries  to  catch  or  bat  it. 

The  ball  is  put  in  play  by  a  toss-up  at  the  center  of  the  field  after 
each  goal  thrown,  at  the  beginning  of  each  half,  and  in  case  of  certain 
fouls.  When  the  ball  is  held  momentarily  by  two  players,  the  referee 
stops  the  play  and  starts  it  again  by  a  toss-up  at  the  spot  where  the 
ball  was  held.  The  same  play  is  used  when  the  referee  is  unable  to 
decide  to  whom  the  ball  rightfully  belongs. 

Passing  the  Ball. — The  greater  part  of  the  play  in  basketball 
consists  in  passing  the  ball.  Since  an  opponent  guards  both  the 
thrower  and  the  man  to  whom  the  ball  is  thrown,  considerable  skill 
is  required.  The  thrower  must  be  able  to  see  the  men  of  his  own  side, 
decide  to  whom  it  can  best  be  passed  and  to  what  spot  it  must  be 
thrown,  and  then  make  the  throw,  all  in  an  instant.  A  distinctive 
uniform  is  a  great  help  in  this  respect.  Some  teams  pass  the  ball 
most  often  by  a  low  throw  or  bound  on  the  floor,  while  others  prefer 
a  high  overhead  game;  to  be  most  successful,  players  must  master 
all  styles  of  play. 

Dribbling. — Sometimes,  instead  of  passing  the  ball  to  another 
a  player  advances  it  by  bounding  it  on  the  floor  or  tossing  it  in  the 
air  while  running  down  the  field.  This  is  called  "dribbling."  Drib- 
bling may  enable  a  single  star  player  to  play  a  whole  game,  the  other 
players  having  little  or  nothing  to  do.  To  prevent  such  occurrences 
the  rules  for  men  put  the  limitations  on  dribbling  as  follows:  only 
one  hand  can  be  used  at  a  time,  and  a  goal  cannot  be  thrown  after  a 
dribble  until  another  player  has  touched  the  ball. 

Out  of  Bounds. — When  the  ball  is  thrown  or  batted  out  of  the 
field  of  play  and  remains  there,  it  is  given  to  the  opponents  of  the 
player  responsible  for  its  going  out.  The  player  to  whom  it  is  given 
stands  outside  the  boundary  line  at  the  spot  where  it  went  out,  and 


no  tup:  teaching  of  play 

throws  it  ill.     He  is  allowed  (i\"t"  seconds  ol'  time  to  throw  it,  and  his 
opponent  is  not  i)orniitt<'d  to  cross  the  liii(>  to  uiiard  him. 

Thkowinc  (Ioals.-  Tliro\vin<4'  ^oals  from  the  tield  is  the  most 
difficnlt  and  also  the  most  im])ortant  part  of  tlie  <iame.  Since  each 
forward  is  opposed  l)y  a  man  who  is  selected  because  of  his  skill  in 
guarding,  (piick  work  is  necessary.  The  most  successful  goal  throwers 
use  all  kinds  of  throws  with  one  or  hoth  hands.  .V  player  having  a 
free  throw  stands  on  the  fifteen-foot  line  to  make  the  throw.  He 
must  not  cress  the  line  until  the  goal  has  been  made  or  missed.  No 
other  player  is  permitted  within  six  feet  of  the  thrower  nor  in  a  lane 
six  feet  wide  between  him  and  the  goal. 

Fouls. — The  rules  specify  eleven  general  fouls,  including  ad- 
vancing with  the  ball,  holding  it  against  the  body,  kicking  it  or  strik- 
ing it  with  the  closed  fist;  holding,  tackling,  or  ))ushing  an  opponent; 
delaying  the  game;  it  is  also  a  foul  if  a  third  man  touches  the  ball 
while  it  is  h(>ld  by  two  players,  or  for  any  i)layer  except  the  captains 
to  address  the  officials. 

Players  are  penalized  for  the  first  offense  and  dis(iualified  for  the 
second  offense  if  found  guilty  of  striking,  kicking,  tripping  or 
shouldering  an  opponent,  any  other  unneces.sary  roughness,  or  using 
objectionable  language.* 

The  Game  for  Women.^ — Basketl)all  for  women  differs  from 
the  men's  game  in  three  main  points:  (1)  boundary  lines  divide  the 
field  into  three  parts,  and  the  players  in  each  part  must  remain  there; 
C^)  teams  are  of  six  players  instead  of  five;  (8)  the  ball  may  not  be 
taken  from  a  player's  hands,  but  she  is  given  only  three  seconds  in 
which  to  liirow  it.     I'he  rules  governing  (h-il)bling  arc  also  different. f 

(iooi)  I'oLNTs  OF  THE  Ga.me.-  Baskctljall  is  in  many  respects 
an  ideal  form  of  exercise.  It  brings  into  u.se  all  the  nuiscles  of  the 
body,  and  each  in  good  projjortion ;  it  tends  to  one-sided  de\-el()pmcnt 
less  than  almost  any  other  common  game,  sport  or  occupation.  It 
demands  frecpiently  a  vigorous  stretching  of  the  body  to  its  full 
height  and  reaching  upward  with  l)oth  arms,  which  makes  it  a  good 
corrective  for  common  faults  of  posture.  It  develops  speed  and  skill 
rather  than  strength,  and  although  it  favors  tall  playcMs.  this  is  on 
condition  that  they  are  nimble  on  their  feet  and  speedy  and  skillful 
in  handling  t  he  ball. 

Ml\01{     HasKKTH ALL    (Ja.MKS 

Several  minor  games  are  pla\cd  with  a  baskctl)all  with  the  object 
of  teaching  the  rudiments  of  basketball  to  beginners  aiui  to  employ 


♦Basketball  (Jiiulc.    Spaldin^.s  .\tlil(tic  Lihniry,  NOs.  7,  1!);5,  and  299. 
tHask.'ll);iIl  for  Woiiicii.     SpuLliiiii's  Atlil.-lic  Lil.rary.  Xo.  2G0. 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  91 

and  interest  large  numbers  of  players  at  once.    A  few  of  these  will  be 
described  in  progressive  order. 

Newcomb. — Divide  the  players  into  two  groups  of  as  near  equal 
ability  as  possible.  Stretch  a  rope  or  tennis  net  across  the  middle  of 
the  basketball  court  at  a  height  of  six  or  eight  feet,  and  send  one 
team  to  each  side.  Decide  on  length  of  time  for  play,  and  instruct 
time-keeper  to  call  "time"  at  end  of  each  half.  Give  the  ball  for 
first  throw  to  one  team  first  half  and  to  the  other  the  second.  Scorer 
marks  scores  as  called  by  umpire.  Players  throw  the  ball  over  the 
rope  so  as  to  make  it  strike  in  unguarded  places  in  opponents'  terri- 
tory. Opponents  try  to  catch  the  ball  if  it  is  going  to  hit  the  floor  in 
their  part  of  the  field  but  leave  it  alone  if  it  is  going  out  of  bounds. 
A  ball  striking  the  floor  counts  for  the  thrower's  side,  unless  a  foul 
is  made.  It  is  a  foul  to  hit  the  rope  or  to  throw  the  ball  under  the 
rope  or  out  of  bounds,  and  each  foid  counts  a  score  for  the  other  side. 
If  any  player  touches  the  ball,  he  cannot  claim  that  it  was  going  out, 
but  is  then  responsible  for  catching  it.  The  player  getting  the  ball 
throws  it  back,  trying  to  make  a  score  and  avoiding  a  foul.  Change 
sides  for  second  half.  The  side  having  the  most  scores  at  end  of 
second  half  wins.  This  game  cultivates  ability  to  throw  and  catch, 
to  move  quickly  about  the  floor,  and  to  judge  where  a  ball  will  fall. 
Young  and  timid  players  stand  in  front  near  the  rope;  those  who 
like  swift  throws  stand  back. 

End  Ball. — Draw  a  line  across  the  basketball  court  about  four 
feet  from  each  end,  and  place  in  this  narrow  space  four  or  five  players 
belonging  to  the  team  stationed  in  the  opposite  half  of  the  field.  The 
rope  is  not  used,  but  a  line  is  drawn  across  the  middle  of  the  floor. 
Players  of  each  team  make  scores  by  throwing  the  ball  over  the 
heads  of  the  opponents  so  that  it  can  be  caught  by  the  "basemen" 
w^ho  stand  in  the  narrow  space  at  the  opposite  end.  Basemen  getting 
the  ball  throw  it  back  for  another  play,  but  the  return  catch  does  not 
count  a  score.  When  opponents  get  the  ball  they  throw  to  their 
basemen  in  the  same  way.  Officials  the  same  as  in  Newcomb.  This 
g-ame  gives  practice  in  throwing  accurately  to  a  player  of  your  own 
side,  in  catching  while  opponents  stand  near  to  guard,  in  guarding, 
and  in  keeping  in  your  own  space.  Players  out  of  bounds  forfeit  the 
ball  if  they  have  it;  if  they  do  not  have  the  ball,  a  foul  gives  a  score 
to  the  others. 

Captain  Ball. — Draw^  as  many  three-foot  circles  on  the  floor 
as  there  are  players  on  each  side.  Numbers  on  each  side  must  be 
equal.  Place  half  the  players  of  each  side  in  circles,  and  place  the 
others  without  the  circles  to  act  as  guards  for  opponents  within. 
Play  begins  by  tossing  up  the  ball  between  the  two  guards  nearest 
the  center.    Any  player  getting  the  ball  throws  it  to  a  baseman  of  his 


0'-2  THE    TKACIIIN'C;    OF    PLAY 

side.  Every  time  ji  haseniaii  catehes  a  hall  llirowii  to  liiin  hy  his 
side  a  seore  is  eounted  for  that  side.  There  is  this  hiuitatiun:  a  base- 
man can  make  a  score  but  once  until  opponents  have  played  the  hall. 
Kach  haseman  may  score  in  turn  and  the  (•Mi)tain  catching'  the  hall 
after  all  the  haseman  h;i\c  had  il  counts  two.  Hasemen  nuiy  step 
out  with  only  one  foot;  guards  may  not  stej)  in  at  all.  Fouls  forfeit 
the  hall  if  you  iuive  it,  and  count  scores  if  you  have  not  the  hall. 
When  all  the  hasemen  of  one  side  have  caught  the  hall  it  is  tossed  uj) 
a^aiii  as  at  first.  Rules  of  hasketl)all,  such  as  running  with  tiie  hall 
and  routih  play  are  enforced.  Tiien-  aic  many  \arieties  of  (■a|)taiu 
hall,  emperor  hall  l)ein,u  one  of  them. 

Keep  B.\ll.- — E(|ual  sides,  so  dressed  or  marked  as  to  l)e  easily 
told.  Each  side  tries  to  keep  the  ball,  hut  no  individual  can  keep  it 
more  than  five  seconds.  Every  successful  pass  from  one  player  to 
another  of  same  side  counts  a  score  for  that  side.  Usual  rules  of 
basketball  u.sed.  The  tendency  is  for  too  much  violent  exercise,  and 
this  may  be  lessened  by  placing'  teams  in  divisions  of  the  held  as 
marked  out  for  basketball  for  women. 

Basketball  (Jamhs 

Haskethall.  ^2,  10,  ^25  Crowd  Mall,  -2 

Balloon  Ball,   t  Emperor  Ball,   t 

Balloon  (ioal.   t  EikI  Ball,   t 

Battle  liall,  .S.  1.  !)  Hand  Koolball.   1.   t 

Boundary  Ball.  1.  .'5.  4  Keep  Ball.  ^2 

Captain  Ball.  1,  ^2,  ;},  4,  .3,  i)  New  York  Captain  Ball,  t 

Captain  Basketball,  2  Nine  Court  Basketball.  4 

Circle  Club  Bowls.  4  Newcomh.  "-Id 

Corner  Ball.  1,  '2,  .S,  4,  !)  Broi-ressive  Captain  Ball,  4 

Curtain  Ball.  1.  ^2.  .S.  4.  !)  Wall   Kick  Ball.  '2 


Chapter  Fifteen 

HOCKEY  GAMES 

Hockey  and  Football. — The  hockey  and  football  games  are 
alike  in  three  important  respects:  (1)  they  are  all  played  upon  a 
rectangular  field  with  a  goal  at  each  end;  (2)  all  have  for  their  main 
object  to  get  the  ball  through  the  opponent's  goal;  (3)  all  of  them 
are  time  games,  played  in  two  halves  of  from  ten  to  forty-five  minutes 
each.  They  are  all  strictly  team  games,  with  teams  varying  in  number 
from  two  to  fifteen,  eleven  being  the  most  common.  In  the  early 
history  of  these  games,  the  goal  symbolized  the  gate  of  a  fortress  or 
a  walled  town,  and  the  whole  game  dramatized  the  capture  of  a  forti- 
fication. Notice  the  marked  difference  in  the  meaning  of  the  goal 
from  that  used  in  elementary  games.  In  all  hockey  and  football 
games  we  have  the  most  direct  and  personal  antagonism  between 
players,  every  player  being  assigned  definitely  to  a  player  on  the 
opposing  team. 

Hockey  and  football  games  differ  in  the  size  of  the  ball  and  the 
way  of  handling  it.  In  hockey  games  there  is  a  small  ball  driven  by 
a  bent  stick;  in  football  there  is  a  large  ball  handled  with  the  hands 
and  feet  only. 

The  principal  hockey  games  are  field  hockey,  ice  hockey,  lacrosse, 
and  polo. 

Field  Hockey 

The  Field. — Field  hockey  is  played  on  a  field  a  hundred  yards 
long  and  fifty  or  sixty  yards  wide,  marked  with  lime.  The  longer 
lines  of  the  field  are  called  the  "side  lines;"  the  shorter,  the  "goal 
lines."  At  the  middle  of  each  end,  standing  upon  the  goal  line,  is  a 
goal  having  two  posts  twelve  feet  apart  with  a  cross  bar  seven  feet 
up.  A  net  or  wire  screen  is  fastened  to  the  top  and  sides  of  the  goal 
and  pegged  down  to  the  ground  a  few  feet  behind  the  goal;  this  is 
to  catch  all  balls  driven  through,  since  the  ball  is  small  and  is  some- 
times driven  with  such  speed  that  it  is  difficult  to  be  sure  which  side 
of  a  post  it  went.  In  front  of  the  goal  and  fifteen  yards  from  it  is 
drawn  a  twelve-foot  line  parallel  to  the  goal  line;  from  each  end  of 
this  line,  with  the  goal  posts  as  a  center,  is  drawn  a  quarter  circle 
ending  at  the  goal  line;  this  makes  what  is  called  the  "striking 
circle."  On  each  side  of  the  field  and  five  yards  within  the  side  lines 
is  marked  a  line  parallel  to  the  side  lines;  there  is  also  a  line  across 
the  field  at  its  center,  and  two  others  half  way  from  the  center  to  the 
ends  that  are  called  the  "twenty -five  yard  lines." 

93 


iU 


TIIK    TKACHINC    OF    I'LAV 


TliK  Pi-AY. — The  object  of  the  i>;iiiu'  is  to  drive  the  l)all  with  a 
heiit  stick  down  the  fiehl  and  finally  thronjih  tlu'  opponents'  ^oal; 
in  order  to  score,  the  hall  innsl  l)e  driven  into  the  ^oal  net  hy  a  player 
standing  within  the  striking  circle.  Each  iioal  so  made  counts  one 
for  the  team  attacking-  that  j>;oaI.  The  l>all  in  hockex  is  imich  like 
the  common  baseball  and  is  kei)t  jiainted  white  to  make  it  easily  seen. 

At  the  beginning-  of  the  game  the  ball  is  placed  in  the  center  of 
the  field  and  put  in  play  by  two  opponents  in  a  manner  called  a 
"  Bully."  This  play  consists  in  each  ])layer's  striking  the  ground  and 
then  his  oj)ponent's  stick  three  times  in  succession,  afier  which  each 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  95 

may  try  to  hit  the  ball;  each  stands  with  the  goal  he  is  attacking  at 
his  left.  The  stick  must  not  be  raised  above  the  shoulder  in  striking, 
neither  may  a  blow  be  struck  with  the  back  of  the  stick.  Play  begins 
again  in  the  same  way  after  each  goal  is  scored,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  second  half,  and  whenever  the  ball  is  driven  beyond  the  goal  line 
by  attacking  side.  In  the  latter  case  play  is  resumed  on  the  twenty- 
five  yard  line;  in  the  other  cases,  at  the  center  of  the  field.  When 
the  ball  is  driven  over  the  side  line  a  player  of  the  opposite  side  stands 
just  outside  at  the  point  where  it  crossed  the  line  and  rolls  it  in  with 
the  hand  in  any  direction  except  forward.  At  this  time  no  other 
player  may  stand  nearer  the  side  line  than  five  yards;  this  explains 
the  use  of  the  five-yard  line  described  above  and  .shown  in  the  diagram. 

The  Score. — The  game  is  won  by  the  side  scoring  the  most 
goals  in  two  halves  of  thirty -five  minutes  each,  or  any  shorter  time 
agreed  upon.  Goals  are  chosen  by  lot  before  the  game  and  changed 
at  the  beginning  of  the  second  half.  The  rules  provide  for  two  um- 
pires, one  for  each  half  of  the  field,  and  a  referee.  In  all  hockey  and 
football  games  the  referee  has  direct  charge  of  the  ball,  and  is  the 
superior  official  of  the  game;  the  umpires  observe  the  action  of  the 
players  and  call  certain  fouls  assigned  to  them. 

The  Teams. — Each  team  consists  of  eleven  men;  five  forwards, 
three  half-backs,  two  full-backs,  and  a  goal  keeper.  When  play 
begins  they  take  the  positions  shown  in  the  diagram.  It  is  the  duty 
of  the  forwards  to  advance  the  ball,  passing  it  to  one  another  and 
following  it  down  the  field,  and  finally  to  get  it  into  the  striking  circle 
and  then  to  hit  for  goal.  The  half-backs  play  behind  the  forwards, 
passing  the  ball  forward  to  them.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  full-backs  to 
break  up  the  play  of  the  opposing  forwards,  get  possession  of  the 
ball,  and  pass  it  forward  to  the  half-backs.  The  goal  keeper  stays 
within  the  striking  circle  and  stands  most  of  the  time  near  the  goal, 
his  duty  being  to  prevent  the  ball  driven  by  the  opponents  from  pass- 
ing between  the  goal  posts. 

Off-Side  Play. — When  a  player  hits  the  ball,  any  other  player 
of  his  side  who  is  ahead  of  him  is  said  to  be  off-side,  unless  at  least 
three  of  the  opponents  are  nearer  the  goal  line  than  he;  one  who  is 
off-side  may  not  play,  either  to  interfere  with  an  opponent  or  to  hit 
the  ball,  until  he  has  been  put  "on-side"  by  the  player  who  made 
the  hit  going  ahead  of  him  or  by  the  ball's  being  handled  by  an 
opponent.  Whenever  a  bully  is  being  played,  all  other  players  must 
be  behind  the  ball. 

Defensive  Play. — The  ball  may  be  stopped  by  the  stick,  hand, 
or  any  part  of  the  body,  but  it  can  be  advanced  only  with  the  flat 
side  of  the  stick;  a  player  catching  the  ball  must  drop  it  at  once.    The 


*)()  THE    TK.VCIIINC    OF    I'LAY 

goalkeeper  mIoiic  is  allowed  to  kick  the  hall.  One  may  stop  ;i  Mow 
of  an  opponent's  stick  by  hooking  it  with  his  own,  hnt  he  ina>-  not 
hook  the  player's  clothing  or  body. 

A  (\)RNER  Hit.— Sometimes  in  trying  to  pre\-ent  the  opponents 
from  scoring,  a  player  of  the  defending  side  drives  the  ball  l)ehind  his 
own  goal  line;  in  snch  a  case  the  attacking  side  have  a  free  hit  from 
the  adjacent  corner  of  the  field.  When  the  hit  is  made  all  th<'  players 
of  the  defending  side  mnst  stand  liehind  the  goal  line  and  Iho-c  of 
tlie  attacking  side  must  be  outside  the  striking  circle. 

Foils. — It  is  a  foul  in  hockey  (1)  to  strike,  kick,  trij).  pii>h,  or 
hold  an  opponent;  (2)  to  run  across  between  him  and  the  ball  to 
prevent  his  striking  it;  (S)  to  raise  the  .stick  above  the  shoulder; 
(4)  to  strike  with  tiie  back  of  the  stick;  (5)  off-side  |)lay.  The  penalty 
for  a  foul  is  a  free  hit  from  the  point  where  the  foul  was  made,  no 
opponent  being  within  five  yards;  an  exception  is  when  a  foul  is 
made  within  the  striking  circle  by  the  defending  side,  when  ])hiy  is 
resumed  by  "Bull\ing"'  at  tiie  same  ])oint. 

Field  Hockey  is  played  extensi\-ely  l)\-  both  men  jiml  women; 
the  rules  are  the  same  for  both.* 

Ice  Hockey 

Ice  Hockey  is  a  similar  game  played  on  tlie  ice  on  skate>.  The 
field  siiould  be  of  about  the  size  and  shape  given  for  field  hockey,  and 
there  should  be  a  bank  or  board  around  the  outside,  since  rebound  of 
the  ball  from  the  side  is  an  imi)ortant  element  in  the  ganu'.  The 
goals  are  about  half  the  size  in  the  former  game,  the  posts  l)eing  six 
feet  apart  and  the  cross  bar  four  feet  uj).  It  is  conunon  to  u.se  a  disk 
of  rubber  instead  of  a  ball,  and  this  is  called  a  "Puck."  Teams  con- 
sist of  seven  players  each.  In  other  respects  the  game  follow  ■-  eIo->ely 
the  plan  of  field   hockey. t 

Lackosse 
Lacrosse  differs  fi-om  hockey  in  the  form  of  the  <liib  and  in  the 
way  that  it  is  u.sed;  in  huTo.s.se  this  is  something  like  an  elongated 
and  loosely  strung  tennis  racket  which  is  used  with  both  liancU.  The 
maimer  of  |)lay  is  to  catch  the  ball  in  the  crosse  and  then  to  run  with 
it  or  to  throw  it.  Much  skill  is  necessary  to  i)ick  up  the  ball,  catch 
it,  and  throw  it  with  this  implement,  while  the  running  makes  it  as 
vigorous  work  as  any  game. 

The  Field. — The  field  in  lacrosse  is  about  the  same  >ize  and 
shape  a>   in   hockey,  ami    I  lie  goals  are  similarly   placed.     'I'he  goal 

*Chri.stopherson  ami  Saclis:     HnckcN    and   i.acrossf. 
Field  IIo(l<cy:    Spalding's  .\llilclic  Library,  .No.  1.54. 
jlcc  Ilorkt  y  (iiiidc:    Spaldinf^'s  .\thletic  Lilirary,  Xo.  <». 
Sec  also  rcftTcncc  10. 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  97 

posts  are  six  feet  apart  and  the  cross  bar  six  feet  up,  and  the  goals 
are  usually  fitted  with  nets  as  in  hockey.  The  goal  stands  in  the 
center  of  a  square  which  is  twelve  feet  on  a  side  and  which  is  enclosed 
by  a  mark  called  the  "goal  crease." 

The  TEA:kis. — The  teams  in  lacrosse  consist  of  twelve  players. 
DIAGRAM  OF  LACROSSE  FIELD 


c 

o 

1 

X 

o 

o 

G 

C 

G 

C 

GC,  goal  crease. 

Score. — The  game  is  won  by  the  side  scoring  the  greatest  number 
of  goals  in  the  time  agreed  upon,  which  is  divided  into  two  halves. 
The  officials  are  two  umpires  and  a  referee. 

The  Play. — Play  begins  in  the  center  of  the  field  by  a  play  that 
corresponds  to  the  "Bully"  in  hockey  and  to  the  "Toss-up"  in 
basketball,  and  which  is  called  "Facing."  The  ball  is  placed  on  the 
ground  and  the  two  opponents  stand  on  opposite  sides  of  it  as  in 
hockey,  each  having  his  left  side  toward  the  goal  he  is  attacking, 
with  their  crosses  touching  the  ground  and  parallel  to  the  goal  line, 
so  that  the  ball  lies  between  them.  To  begin  play  each  player  draws 
his  crosse  toward  him  on  the  ground  until  it  is  past  the  ball;  then 
each  is  free  to  lift  his  crosse  from  the  ground  and  try  for  the  possession 
of  the  ball  by  picking  it  up  or  driving  it  to  a  player  of  his  own  side. 
The  ball  is  thrown  from  one  to  another  by  means  of  the  crosse,  and 
finally  thrown  through  the  goal.  Running  with  the  ball  is  permitted, 
but  is  not  usually  good  play,  since  the  ball  can  be  passed  much  more 
rapidly  than  one  can  run.  The  ball  is  made  of  spongy  India  rubber, 
and  is  about  the  size  of  a  tennis  ball,  but  heavier. 

Defensive  Play. — A  player  on  defense  may  stand  in  the  way 
of  a  man  running,  strike  an  opponent's  crosse  with  his  own,  or  catch 
the  ball  in  his  crosse  when  it  leaves  that  of  an  opponent.     Each 


98  THE    TEA(  HlN(i    OF    PLAY 

player  sliould  cover  liis  ojjjkiiumiI  closely  when  any  oi)])onent  has  the 
ball  so  as  to  prevent  a  ^ood  pass;  he  should  <;et  away  from  him  as 
fast  as  ix)ssihle  when  his  own  side  ^ets  the  hall;  in  this  respect  and 
in  the  absence  of  off-side  play  the  game  is  much  like  basketball. 

Fouls. — It  is  a  foul  (1)  to  strike,  hold,  trip  or  push  an  ojjimnent; 
(2)  to  throw  the  crosse;  (3)  to  interfere  with  a  i)layer  pursuing  an 
opponent;  (4)  to  interfere  with  the  goalkeeper  within  the  goal  crease 
before  the  ball  has  passed  into  it;  (5)  to  touch  the  ball  with  the  hand 
(except  the  goalkee])er).  The  penalty  for  a  foul  is  called  a  "Free 
Position/'  in  which  the  ball  is  put  in  play  by  a  player  of  the  offended 
side  with  no  o|)p(»iient  nearer  than  five  yards. 

Polo 

Polo  is  ])layed  on  horseback,  by  driving  a  wooden  ball  with  a 
long  handled  mallet.  Teams  consist  of  an  even  mimber  of  i)layers, 
anywhere  from  two  to  eight.  The  shape  of  the  field  and  the  general 
manner  of  playing  are  like  hockey,  but  the  field  is  from  five  to  seven 
times  as  large.  Polo  is  played  most  extensively  at  army  i)osts,  by 
cowboys  on  the  plains,  and  in  other  localities  where  horsemanship 
is  a  prominent  feature  of  every-day  life.  Small  i)onies  are  often  used 
in  the  games  instead  of  horses. 

Roller  Polo 
This  resembles  ice  hockey,  being  i)layed  on  roller  skates,  but  a 
mallet  is  u.sed  instead  of  a  bent  stick. 

Historical  Sketch 

Hockey  has  been  played  in  Great  Britain  in  its  pre.sent  form  for 
fifty  years;'  as  a  crude  gjime  with  an  indefinite  numl)er  of  players  it 
has'  been  common  in  northern  Europe  for  many  centuries.  In  the 
earliest  times  it  was  not  distinguished  from  football;  it  was  played 
for  a  long  time  in  Ireland  with  a  small  ball  but  with  no  club,  and 
was  called  "Hurling."  Ice  hockey  in  the  crude  form  is  still  ()lder, 
having  been  played  by  the  Scandinavians  from  prehistoric  times, 
but  it  is  one  of  the  latest  games  to  have  definite  rules,  the  first  set 
being  adopted  by  the  (\\nadian  Hockey  Association  only  a  few  years 
ago.  Polo  is  of  .Vsiatic  origin,  and  was  probably  i)layed  by  the 
IVrsians  at  the  time  of  Alexander  the  (Jreat.  It  was  introduced  from 
Tibet  into  China  in  the  sixth  century  .V.  I).,  and  was  common  in 
India  for  several  centuries,  but  has  entirely  disappeared  when  that 
country  was  first  occupied  by  the  Knglish.  It  was  Hrst  brought  mto 
Europe  by  the  Crusaders  in  the  fifth  century.  Recent  interest  in 
the  game  is  due  chiefly  to  the  English. 


Chapter  Sixteen 

FOOTBALL  GAMES 

In  football  games  we  have  a  large  rouiifl  or  oval  ball,  which  is 
advanced  either  by  kicking,  passing  or  running.  Several  forms  of 
kicking  are  employed.  "Punting"  consists  in  dropping  the  ball 
from  the  hands  and  striking  it  with  the  instep  and  outside  of  the  foot 
before  it  reaches  the  ground;  in  the  "Drop  Kick,"  the  ball  is  allowed 
to  strike  the  ground  and  is  kicked  with  the  toe  of  the  shoe  as  soon  as 
it  leaves  the  ground;  in  the  "Place  Kick,"  the  ball  is  placed  upon  the 
ground,  in  a  slight  depression  made  to  hold  it,  or  is  held  upright  by 
a  player's  hand,  and  another  player  runs  forward  and  kicks  it; 
"Dribbling"  consists  in  running  forward  and  kicking  the  ball  just 
ahead  of  the  player  by  short  kicks;  "Passing  the  Ball"  is  either 
throwing  it  to  one  another  and  catching  it  with  the  hands  or  kicking 
it  from  one  to  another.  The  oval  football  is  thrown  from  the  bent 
arm  or  from  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  whirled  so  as  to  give  it  a  spiral 
motion  in  the  air. 

The  two  main  types  of  footl)all  are  the  Association  game  and 
Rugby.  In  Association  football,  a  round  ball  is  used,  which  is 
handled  with  the  feet  only,  dribbling,  passing,  and  place  kicking 
being  the  only  means  of  advancing  it,  except  that  it  may  be  struck 
with  the  head.  In  the  Rugby  games,  the  ball  may  be  kicked,  passed 
or  carried  in  the  arms,  and  a  player  carrying  the  ball  may  be  stopped 
by  "Tackling."  In  the  Association  game  there  is  a  resemblance  to 
hockey  in  that  the  ball  is  driven  through  the  goal  under  the  bar. 
w^hile  in  Rugby  it  must  be  kicked  over  the  bar.  These  two  styles  of 
football  arose  from  the  fact  that  the  playing  field  at  Rugby  was  soft, 
while  at  Eton  and  other  schools  it  was  hard  and  stony. 

Association  Football 

Field  and  Teams. — Association  football  is  played  by  two  teams 
of  eleven  men  each,  who  are  placed  and  named  as  in  hockey.  The 
field  is  of  the  same  size  as  the  hockey  field,  with  goals  placed  similarly. 
There  is  no  striking  circle.  The  goals  have  two  upright  posts  24  feet 
apart  with  the  cross  bar  8  feet  high.  The  goal  net  is  seldom  used  in 
football. 

The  Play. — The  captains  determine  choice  of  sides  by  lot.  The 
game  begins  by  a  place-kick  at  the  center  of  the  field,  the  opponents 
not  being  nearer  than  six  yards  from  the  ball  when  the  kick  is  made. 
The  rules  for  ofl'-side  play  are  as  in  hockey.    A  player  may  kick  the 

99 


100 


THE    TEACHING    OF    I'l.AY 


ball  down  the  field  or  advance  it  by  ''Dribbling."  Some  i)layers  gain 
snch  skill  that  the  ball  is  often  dribbled  dt)\vn  the  field  while  snccess- 
fnlly  dodging  one  or  more  opponents  who  try  to  get  it  away.  When 
too  hard  pressed,  the  player  stops  dribbling  and  kicks  it  to  another 
j)layer  of  his  side.  The  ball  may  be  hit  by  the  feet,  knees,  or  any  part 
of  the  body  except  the  hands  or  arms.  A  l)all  coming  down  from  the 
air  to  a  player  is  often  played  by  a  blow  with  the  head,  given  by  a 
spring  into  the  air  from  both  feet.  No  one  bnt  a  goalkeeper  may 
catch  the  ball,  and  he  only  in  defending  his  goal.     The  officials  are 


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50 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  101 

two  umpires  and  a  referee,  as  in  Hockey  and  Lacrosse.  Scores  are 
made  by  kicking  the  ball  through  the  goal  under  the  cross  bar,  as  in 
hockey,  and  the  team  scoring  the  greater  number  of  goals  in  the  two 
halves  is  the  winner. 

Fouls  and  Penalties. — Fouls  are  called  for  (1)  holding,  push- 
ing, striking,  or  tripping  an  opponent  or  other  unnecessary  roughness; 
(2)  handling  the  ball  or  striking  it  with  hands  or  arms,  except  by 
goalkeeper  in  defending  the  goal;  (3)  off-side  play.  The  penalty  for 
fouls  is  a  free  kick  from  the  spot  where  the  foul  is  made,  the  opponents 
not  being  nearer  than  six  yards.  No  goal  is  scored  from  any  free 
kick,  including  the  kick  at  the  beginning  of  play. 

The  Ball  Out  of  Bounds. — When  the  ball  is  kicked  across  the 
sideline  it  is  thrown  in  by  an  overhead  throw  by  a  player  of  the  opposite 
side,  at  the  point  where  it  went  out.  When  the  ball  is  sent  over  the 
end  line  by  the  attacking  players,  but  not  through  the  goal,  play  is 
resumed  by  a  free  kick  by  the  defending  side  six  yards  from  the  near- 
est goal  post.  If  the  defenders  send  the  ball  over  the  end  line  in  pro- 
tecting their  goal,  the  attacking  side  has  a  free  kick  from  the  corner 
of  the  field,  corresponding  to  the  "corner  hit"  in  Hockey. 

Association  football  is  played  extensively  in  England  and  in 
Canada,  and  is  coming  into  favor  in  the  United  States  as  a  game  for 
grammar  school  and  high  school  boys,  for  whom  it  is  well  suited, 
being  simpler  and  less  rough  than  Rugby.  It  also  serves  as  a  good 
preparation  for  those  who  will  play  Rugby  when  they  are  older.* 

Rugby  Football  Games 
The  Rugby  games  are  much  more  complicated  than  Basketball 
or  Association  Football.  Scores  are  made  in  several  ways,  and  a 
greater  variety  of  plays  is  permitted,  kicking,  running  with  the  ball, 
and  passing,  all  being  used.  This  necessarily  makes  the  rules  more 
complex  and  difficult  to  understand.  American  Rugby  and  Eng- 
lish Rugby  differ  considerably.  In  American  Rugby  there  is  much 
mass  play,  while  the  English  game  is  more  open.  The  use  of  mass  play 
in  the  American  game  comes  about  principally  through  th^  habit 
of  using  what  is  called  "Interference,"  which  consists  in  sending  a 
group  of  men  ahead  of  the  man  with  the  ball  to  protect  him  from  the 
opposing  tacklers.  The  players  ahead  of  the  ball  are  "off-side," 
and  this  is  not  allowed  in  English  Rugby ;  on  the  other  hand,  passing 
the  ball  forward  is  permitted  freely  in  the  English  game,  while  in 
American  Rugby  it  is  only  allowed  once  in  each  play,  and  was  not 
allowed  at  all  until  the  season  of  1906. 

American  Rugby 
The  Field. — American  Rugby  is  played  on  a  level  field  300  feet 
long  and  160  feet  wide.    At  each  end  of  the  field  are  the  goal  posts,  183^2 

*Soccer  Guide.     Spalding  Athletic  Library. 


IQo  THE  tp:a('11in(;  of  play 

feet  apart,  with  a  cross  bar  10  feet  up.  Formerly  the  fieUl  was  marked 
only  hy  lines  crossing-  it  every  ten  yards,  givinu'  it  the  general  form 
of  a  gridiron;  now  it  is  also  marked  with  lines  lengthwise,  giving  it 
rather  the  appearance  of  a  checkerhoard.  These  lines  are  to  aid  the 
referee  in  determining  distances. 

The  PLAY.^It  is  the  object  of  each  team,  which  consists  of 
eleven  men,  to  defend  its  own  goal  and  to  score  points  by  kicking  or 
carrving  the  ball  into  the  opponents'  territory.  A  player  carrying 
the  ball  may  be  stopped  by  grasping  him  and  throwing  him  to  the 
gronnd.  This  is  called  "Tackling."  No  one  may  be  tackled  except 
Uie  man  with  the  ball.  To  prevent  opponents  from  tackling  the 
jilayer  with  the  ball,  his  fellows  often  form  a  gronj)  and  rnn  in  front 
of  "him.  or  between  him  and  the  oi)i)()nents.  Men  thns  acting  a.s 
protection  for  the  man  carrying  the  ball  arc  said  to  form  an  "'inter- 
ference." Men  on  the  side  having  the  ball  may  not  nse  their  hands 
or  arms  to  keep  opponents  away,  bnt  may  rnn  against  them  with  hip 
or  shonlder.  The  side  not  in  possession  of  the  ball  m:i\-  nsi>  hands  or 
arms  to  aid  them  in  getting  to  the  man  with  the  l)all. 

Scoring. — The  game  is  won  by  the  team  scoring  the  most  points 
in  two  "'halves"  of  thirty-five  minutes  each,  or  a  shorter  time  agreed 
n()on.  Fifteen  minutes  rest  is  given  between  halves.  Scores  are  made 
as  follows:  a  touchdown  counts  five;  a  goal  from  touchdown  counts 
one;  a  goal  from  the  field  counts  three;  a  safety  counts  two  for  the 
opponents.  The  way  in  which  each  of  these  scores  is  won  will  be 
described  in  the  proper  place  in  the  following  description  of  tlu>  play. 

Officials. — The  officials  of  the  game  are  a  Referee,  an  I'mpire, 
a  Field  Judge,  and  a  Linesman.  The  referee  has  general  charge  of 
the  ball  and  is  judge  of  its  position  and  progress.  He  also  decules 
])oints  under  certain  other  cases  specified  in  the  rules.  The  umpire 
is  the  judge  of  the  conduct  of  the  players,  and  has  for  his  duty  the 
calling  of  certain  classes  of  fouls.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  Field  Judge 
to  occupy  a  position  well  back  of  the  team  not  in  pos.session  of  the 
ball  and  toward  the  side  of  the  field  oi)p()site  from  the  linesnum,  and 
to  relieve  the  Referee  of  some  of  his  duties  in  this  part  of  the  Held; 
also  to  observe  and  report  fouls  not  coming  to  the  attention  of  the 
Umj)ire.  The  linesman,  under  the  direction  of  the  Itcfcree,  marks  the 
distance  gained.  He  also  keeps  the  time,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Referee,  and  calls  fouls  for  violation  of  certain  rules.  The  Referee 
and  the  umpire  stay  in  the  field  near  the  players  while  the  linesman 
remains  on  the  side  line. 

Kick-off. — Before  beginning  the  game,  the  captains  loss  for 
choice  of  goals.  The  winner  of  the  toss  may  either  choose  the  goal 
he  will  defend  or  lake  the  ball.  If  he  chooses  the  goal,  the  other  side 
has  the  ball.    The  game  begins  by  a  i)lay  known  as  "Kick-off."    The 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY 


103 


ball  is  placed  on  the  ground  at  the  center  of  the  field,  and  the  teams 
take  the  positions  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  team  indicated  by  capitals 
will  be  called  team  A,  and  the  other,  team  B.  Team  A  has  the  ball, 
and  one  of  its  men  is  to  kick  it  down  the  field.  Team  A  forms  a  line 
close  behind  the  ball,  since  it  is  to  their  advantage  to  follow  the  ball 
down  the  field  as  closely  as  possible.  No  one  is  allowed  to  be  off-side 
when  the  ball  is  put  in  play.  Team  B  takes  the  open  formation 
shown,  because  it  cannot  be  known  where  the  kicked  ball  will  fall, 
and  it  is  to  their  advantage  to  get  possession  of  it  without  fail. 


b 

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A 

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A 

DIAGRAM  OF  KICK-OFF 

Figure  1 

When  both|,teams  are  ready  the  referee  blows  his  whistle,  the 
ball  is  kicked,  and  the  game  is  begun.  Team  A  charges  down  the 
field  after  the  ball  as  fast  as  possible.  Usually  the  ball  is  caught  by 
a  man  of  team  B,  w'ho  will  then  run  with  it  as  far  as  possible  towards 
A's  goal.  To  aid  him,  all  the  B  men  in  his  vicinity  will  form  an  inter- 
ference and  thus  ward  off  the  A  men  who  wish  to  tackle  him.  Finally 
he  is  tackled,  and  the  Referee  blows  his  whistle,  declaring  the  ball 
"Down."  The  Referee  now  takes  charge  of  the  ball  and  stops  the 
play  long  enough  to  instruct  the  linesmen  where  to  set  their  stakes. 

The  Linesman. — The  Linesman  has  two  assistants.  Each 
carries  a  stake,  the  two  stakes  being  connected  by  a  rope  or  chain 
ten  yards  long.  One  assistant  sets  his  stake  on  the  side  line  of  the 
field  directly  opposite  the  place  where  the  ball  is  declared  down.    The 


104 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY 


other  assistant  sets  liis  stake  ten  yards  toward  A's  <ioal.  The  ball 
is  now  in  the  hands  of  team  B,  and  this  team  mnst  gain  the  ten  yards 
indicated  l)y  the  second  stake  in  three  snccessive  trials,  or  they  will 
forfeit  the  ball.  When  the  referee  l)lows  his  whistle  for  play  to  con- 
tinue, it  is  resumed  by  a  formation  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  '•2. 
This  is  called^iV  scrimmage." 


E        a       H 
/Ai      /I  \     /i 


®  ©  © 


Fig.  2.     SCRIM  MACK 
Positions  of|Players:    Circles,  side  with  the  hall;    Stiuares,  (iefeuding  sid. 
G,  G,  guards;  T,  T,  tackles;   K,  K,  ends. 


C,  center 


A  Scrimmage. — The  position.s  of  the  players  on  the  team  having 
the  ball  (ofTensive  play)  are  indicated  by  circles,  the  team  on  defense 
by  squares.  Notice  that  there  are  seven  forwards,  one  (niarterback, 
two  halfbacks  and  one  fulback.  The  ball  is  held  by  the  center  player. 
Now  the  cai)tain  or  (piarterback  calls  a  signal  which  all  the  men  of 
that  team  understand  as  the  call  for  a  certain  play,  having  agreed 
upon  it  and  rehearsed  it  in  practice  beforehand;  the  whole  team 
unites  in  an  effort  to  carry  it  out  successfully.  Such  plays  usually 
begin  by  the  center's  passing  the  ball  to  the  quarterback,  and  in 
most  plays  he  passes  it  to  a  third  player,  who  runs  with  it,  so  as  to 
advance  \vith  it  towards  the  opi)onent's  goal.  There  are  a  great 
many  i)()ssil)le  variations  in  this  plan,  but  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  3 
will  illustrate  the  idea,  and  show  how  the  whole  team  can  work  to- 
gether as  one  man. 


THE    TEACHING   OF    PLAY 


105 


Ax  ExD  Run. — In  the  play  shown  in  Fig.  '},  which  is  one  of 
several  ways  an  end  run  can  be  made,  the  quarterback  passes  the 
ball  to  the  left  halfback,  who  runs  with  it  around  the  right  end.  For 
an  interference,  the  quarterback  runs  at  the  left  of  the  man  with 
the  ball  and  slightly  in  front  of  him,  closely  followed  by  the  left 
guard,  left  tackle,  and  left  end,  as  shown  in  the  diagram.    The  right 


Fig.  3.     AX  END  RUN 

Broken  line,  where  the  ball  is  passed;    solid  lines,  where  the  players  run;    group  oi 

small  circles  show  position  of  players  for  interference. 

half  and  the  fullback  have  as  their  duty  to  run  as  indicated  by  the 
lines  and  stop  the  two  opponents  who  are  considered  most  dangerous 
— the  end  and  halfback.  The  men  remaining  in  the  line  dash  for- 
ward into  the  opposing  line  and  block  those  who  are  trying  to  break 
through  and  stop  the  play.  Every  man  on  the  team  has  his  part 
in  the  play,  and  the  man  with  the  ball  goes  forward  until  he  is  tackled 
by  an  opponent;  then  the  ball  is  declared  down,  and  another  scrim- 
mage formed.  Sometimes,  instead  of  an  end  run,  an  attempt  is 
made  to  go  through  the  opposing  line;  this  is  called  a  "line  play." 
(See  diagram  4.) 

A  Touchdown. — The  game  may  continue  by  a  succession  of 
scrimmages  until  one  team  succeeds  in  touching  the  ball  down  behind 


lOG 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY 


the  opponents'  goal  line.  This  constitntes  a  tonchdown.  It  counts 
five,  and  also  gives  the  successful  team  the  privilege  of  a  free  try-at- 
goal.  To  do  this  the  ball  is  brought  out  into  the  field  directly  oi)posite 
the  yjlace  where  the  touchdown  was  made,  and  the  best  kicker  on  the 
team  tries  to  send  it  over  the  cross-bar  of  the  goal  by  a  place  kick. 
If  he  succeeds,  it  counts  one  more.  After  a  touchdown,  play  is  re- 
sumed by  a  kick-oft'  at  center  of  the  field  as  at  first,  the  side  scored 
upon  having  the  right  to  decide  who  shall  kick.  Rubgy  is  the  only 
game  in  which  scores  are  made  by  merely  carrying  the  ball  over  the 
goal  line;  in  all  other  games  of  this  type  it  nuist  go  through  the  goal. 
Kicking  the  ball  over  the  line,  however,  does  not  score. 

PuNTiXG. — ^Yhen  a  team  finds  itself  unable  to  make  the  required 
ten  yards  in  three  trials,  punting  is  usually  resorted  to.  Since  even 
an  indiflferent  punter  can  advance  the  ball  several  yards,  it  is  better 
to  punt  than  to  lose  it  on  downs  with  no  advance.  The  punter  is 
placed  well  back,  so  as  to  enable  him  to  get  the  ball  away  before  an 
opponent  can  reach  him;  the  center  sends  him  the  ball  by  a  long  pass, 
and  it  is  punted  over  the  heads  of  the  opposing  team.  The  two  ends 
run  down  the  field  after  the  ball  so  as  to  be  ready  to  tackle  the  man 
who  catches  it  before  he  can  gain  much  distance  in  running.  If  the 
man  catching  it  is  a  good  punter,  he  will  often  punt  it  back  again. 

0 


0—        S—        E) 


\ 


0    0    0    0.  ..0 


/^ 


Fiir.  i.     A  LINK  i'LAY 


THE    TEACHING    OF    PLAY  107 

The  Forward  Pass. — The  forward  pass  consists  in  passing  the 
ball  toward  the  opponents'  goal.  The  ball  is  usually  held  on  the  palm 
of  the  hand  and  thrown  end  first  with  a  whirling  motion,  causing 
the  ball  to  offer  the  least  resistance  in  its  flight.  A  ball  can  thus  be 
thrown  for  a  distance  of  forty  or  fifty  yards  by  those  who  are  expert. 
The  ball  may  be  passed  forward  by  any  player  playing  a  position 
back  of  or  at  the  ends  of  the  line,  providing  that  in  passing  it  the  ball 
does  not  pass  over  the  line  of  scrimmage  within  five  yards  of  the 
center. 

A  Goal  from  the  Field. — When  a  team  finds  itself  in  front  of 
the  opponents*  goal  and  within  kicking  distance,  a  goal  from  the 
field  is  often  attempted.  A  punt  is  not  permitted,  the  rules  requiring 
a  drop-kick  or  place-kick.  The  ball  in  the  latter  case  is  passed  far 
back  by  the  center  to  the  quarterback,  who  holds  it  for  the  man  to 
kick,  as  in  try  at  goal.  If  the  ball  goes  between  the  posts  and  over 
the  cross-bar,  a  goal  is  scored,  and  the  play  is  resumed  as  in  case  of 
a  touchdown. 

Safety  and  Touchback. — A  "safety"  is  scored  when  a  player 
carries  the  ball  back  and  touches  it  down  behind  his  own  goal  line. 
(Compare  the  similar  play  in  hockey  and  association.)  This  is  some- 
times done  by  a  weaker  team  when  the  opponents  are  about  to  make 
a  touchdown,  but  lose  the  ball.  Since  it  is  nearly  certain  that  the 
touchdown  will  soon  be  made,  the  weaker  team,  having  got  hold  of 
the  ball,  may  make  a  safety,  which  scores  two  for  the  opponents,  thus 
saving  a  probable  score  of  five  or  six.  If,  however,  the  ball  is  touched 
down  by  a  player  behind  his  own  goal  line,  the  force  which  sent  it 
there  coming  from  the  opposing  team,  no  score  is  made,  and  the  play 
is  called  a  "touchback."  This  corresponds  to  the  play  in  hockey 
where  the  ball  is  driven  over  the  end  of  the  field;  the  play  is  resumed 
as  in  hockey,  by  a  play  on  the  "^o-yard  line;  here  the  defending  side 
may  choose  whether  to  punt  or  place  kick  or  scrimmage. 

A  Fumble. — When  the  ball  is  dropped  in  passing  it  or  running 
with  it  the  accident  is  called  a  "fumble,"  and  any  player  who  can 
get  possession  of  it  may  do  so.  It  is  not  allowable,  however,  to  take 
the  ball  away  from  an  opponent.  Fumbles  are  often  costly  errors,  as 
the  man  who  picks  up  the  ball  frequently  gets  too  far  away  to  be 
tackled,  and  makes  a  touchdown  unassisted. 

Penalties. — Refusal  to  play  when  the  referee  orders  it  may  be 
penalized  by  forfeiture  of  the  game.  Unnecessary  roughness  and 
striking  with  the  closed  fist  call  for  withdrawal  from  the  game;  most 
cases  of  foul  are  penalized  by  loss  of  distance, — five,  ten,  or  even 
twenty  yards,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  offense  and  the  number 
of  times  it  is  repeated.  Distance  penalties  are  provided  for  holding, 
tripping,  off-side  play,  and  other  fouls  of  a  technical  nature.* 


*Football  Guide.    Spalding's  Athletic  Library,  Xos.  2  and  300. 


108  the  teachixg  of  play 

Football  Games 

American  Rugl\v,  7,  '25  Kick  Over  Ball,  1 

Association  Football  Line  Football,  2 

(soccer),  7,  ^o  Pin  Football,  '2 

English  Rugbv,  6,  7,  25  Scrimmage  Ball,  2 

Kick  Ball,  2 


Football.  By  Parke  H.  Davis,  1911. 


Chapter  Seventeen 


GAMES  OF  PERSONAL  COMBAT 

Boxing,  fencing,  and  wrestling  are  the  most  familiar  examples 
of  a  group  of  games  in  which  personal  combat  is  the  main  feature. 
Some  of  them,  including  the  three  named,  are  forms  of  primitive 
warfare;  others  have  been  devised  to  employ  the  fighting  instincts 
that  are  prominent  in  some  boys  at  certain  ages.  The  following  are 
described  in  the  common  books  of  play: 


Bar  Pull,  5 

Boxing,  7,  25 

Blind  Man's  Biff,  !2 

Catch  and  Pull  Tug  of  War,  4 

Chicken  Fight,  2,  3 

Fencing,  6,  7 

Fortress,  4 

Forcing  the  City  Gates,  4 

Hand  Wrestling,  2 

Horseback  Wrestle,  2 

Hoppers,  1 

Hopping  Bases,  1 

Indian  Club  Wrestle,  2 


Indian  Wrestle,  2 
Master  of  the  Ring,  1,  4 
Poison  Snake,  4 
Poison  Stick,  2 
Robbers  and  Soldiers,  4 
Siege,  4 

Sparrow  Fight,  2 
Staff  Wrestling,  3 
Swat  Ball,  2 
Wand  Wrestling,  2 
Wrestling,  7,  25 
Wrestling  Circle,  3 
W  ar,  2 


10!) 


110  THK    TKACHIXf;    OF    FLAY 


REFERENCES   ON   PLAY  ACTIVITIES 

1.  Ahmini  of   Boston   Xonnal  School  of  (iyiiumstics:     1.50  (gym- 

nastic (lanies. 

2.  Angell:  Play. 

3.  Arnold:  Games  Classified. 

4.  Bancroft:  Games. 

5.  Gary:  Plays  and  (ianies  for  Schools. 

6.  Cassell:  Sports  and  Pastimes. 

7.  Champlin:    Youth's  Cyclopedia;    Games  and  Sports. 

8.  Dier:  Winter  Sports. 

0.  Gray:  '200  (iymnastic  (James. 

10.  Hill:    Athletics  and  Outdoor  Sports  for  Women. 

11.  Hofer:    Music  for  the  Child  World.    Vol.  2. 

12.  Newton:  Graded  Games  and  Rhythmic  Exercises. 

13.  Perrin:    Course  in  Piiysical  Traininti;  for  the  Detroit  Schools. 

14.  Stoneroad:  (iymnastic  Stories. 

Spkcial  References  on  Dances: 

!.>.  Bolin:  Swedish  Song  Plays. 

10.  Burchcnal:     Folk  Dances  and  Singing  Games;    Dances  of  the 
Pcoj)le. 

17.  Bowen:   The  Teaching  of  Elementary  School  Gymnastics. 

18.  Clapp:  Swedish  Folk  Dances. 

19.  Crawford:  Folk  Dances  and  Games. 

20.  Crampton:  The  F'olk  Dance  Book. 

21.  Kimmins  and  Woolnoth:  (iuild  of  Play  Book. 

22.  Chalif:  Special  Music  and  Descriptions. 

23.  (iilhert  School:    Special  Music  and  Descriptions. 

24.  Burton:  Special  Music  and  Descriptions. 

25.  Spahling's  Atidetic  Library. 


Index 


Ace  of  Diamonds,  46. 

Adam  Did  Have  Seven  Sons,  46. 

Adolescence,  '28. 

Advancing  Statues,  55. 

Aeroplane,  44. 

Age  and  Sex,  '26. 

All  Run,  70. 

All  Up,  58. 

American  Beauty,  46. 

American  Rugby,  101. 

Archer V,  51. 

Arch  Ball,  58. 

Arch  Goal  Ball,  58. 

Arrow  Chase,  53. 

Association  Football,  99. 

At  the  Beach,  44. 

Automobile,  44. 

Auto  Race,  58. 

Autumn  in  the  Woods,  44. 

Badminton,  83. 

Bag  Pile,  58. 

Bag  Tag,  69. 

Bag  Toss,  53. 

Ball  and  Bases,  77. 

Ball  Chase,  67. 

Ball  Drill,  42. 

Ball  Passing,  42. 

Ball  Puss,  70. 

Ball  Stand,  70. 

Balloon  Ball,  9*2. 

Balloon  Goal,  92. 

Barbarok,  46. 

Barley  Break,  70. 

Barnvard  People,  45. 

Bar  Pull,  109. 

Baseball,  73. 

Baseball  Game,  44. 

Baseball  Throw,  53. 

Basketball,  88. 

Basketball  Contests,  58. 

Basketball  Distance  Throw,  53. 


Basketball  for  Women,  90. 

Basketball  Goal  Race,  58. 

Baste  the  Bear,  70. 

Batting  the  Ball,  77. 

Battle  Ball,  92. 

Bean  Bag,  58. 

Bean  Bag  Backward,  58. 

Bean  Bag  Contests,  58. 

Bean  Bag  Circle  Toss,  42. 

Bean  Bags  in  a  Circle,  42. 

Bean  Bag  Relay,  58. 

Bean  Bag  Target,  58. 

Bean  Bag  Target  Contests,  52. 

Beater  (Beetle)  Goes  Round,  64. 

Better  Play  for  All,  25. 

Bend  and  Stretch  Relay,   58. 

Bird  Catchers,  71. 

Birds  Learning  to  Fly,  44. 

Blackboard  Relays,  57. 

Black     and     White     (Day     and 

Night),  71. 
Black  Man,  71. 
Black  Tom,  71. 
Blacksmith,  44. 
Bleking,  46. 
Blind  Man's  Biff,  109. 
Blueberry ing,  44. 
Boat  Song,  46. 
Boiler  Burst,  64. 
Boston  Ball,  77. 
Boundarv  Ball,  92. 
Bound  Ball,  83. 
Bowling,  51. 

Bowling  on  the  Green,  61. 
Boxing,  109. 
Brownies,  45. 
Bugaboo,  71. 
Building  a  Bonfire,  44. 
Building  Fire  in  a  Stove,  44. 
Bull  in  the  Ring,  68. 
Bunch  of  Ivy,  45. 
Buying  a  Lock,  44. 


Ill 


112 


INDEX 


Call  Ball.  (V2. 
("ainpin^',  -t^. 
Canoeing,  4'-2. 
Cap  Tag.  ()J). 

Captain  and  Attendant,  70. 
Captain  Hall,  J)l.  iH. 
Captain  Basketball,  92. 
Carousel,  4(5. 
Vav  Ride,  44. 

Cat  and  Mouse  ("Rat),  67,  08. 
Catch  and  I'ull  Tug  of  ^Yar,  10!). 
Catch  Ball,  02. 
Catch  Basket,  58. 
Catch  of  Fish  (Fisherman),  71. 
Catch  the  Cane,  62. 
Catch  the  Wand,  62. 
Caterpillar,  64. 
Caught  in  a  Storm,  44. 
Center  Base,  67. 
Center  (^atch  Ball,  69. 
Center  Club  Bowls,  .5.5,  o8. 
Center  Pins,  64. 
Center  Stride  Ball,  64. 
Chalk  the  Arrow,  53. 
Chaminade,  46. 
(lianging  Seats,  64. 
Change  in  Life  Hai)its,  19. 
Chariot  Race,  55. 
Chase  the  Rabbit,  64. 
Chicken  Fight,  109. 
Chicken  Market,  44. 
Chickidy  Hand,  71. 
Chimes  of  Dunkirk,  40. 
Chinese  Chicken,  5.'}. 
Chinese  Wall,  71. 
Chin  the  Bar,  5.3. 
Christmas  Toys,  44. 
.Circle  Ball,  42,  (59. 
Circle  Club  Bowls,  <)2. 
Circle  Race,  5.3. 
Circle  Relay,  58. 
Circle  Seat  Relav,  58. 
Circle  Stride  Ball,  64. 
Circle  Wand  Contest,  o.j. 
Circle  Zig/ag,  58. 
Circus,  44. 
Clean  House,  44. 


Clothes  Pin  Contest,  58. 

Clu))  Snatch,  oo,  72. 

Coasting,  42,  44. 

Co-ed  Tag,  68. 

College  Athletics,  24. 

Come  with  me,  64. 

Coming  to  This  Country,  44. 

Commercialized  Play,  22. 

Confusion,  64. 

(\)ntests  between  Iiidixiduals,  48. 

(\)rner  Ball.  92. 

Corner  S|)ry,  58. 

Conrt  Tennis,  80. 

Cowboys,  44. 

Cricket,  77. 

Criss  Cross,  58. 

Criss  Cross  Goal,  58. 

Crossing  the  Brook,  53. 

Cross  Tag,  70. 

Crow  Race,  53. 

Crowd  Ball,  92. 

Csardas,  4().     • 

Csebogar,  46. 

Curling,  61. 

Curtain  Ball,  92. 

Cutting  Crass,  44. 

Dance  of  the  Bears,  45. 

Dancing  Topsy,  46. 

Danish  Dance  of  Greeting.  46. 

Danse  Unique,  46. 

Dare  Ba.se,  71. 

Decline,  Age  of,  31. 

Definitions,  41. 

Derbv  Jig,  53. 

Desk  Relay,  58. 

Did  ^'ou  ever  See  a  Lassie,  46. 

Distance  Runs,  49. 

Dodge  Ball,  71. 

Double  Circle,  (54. 

Double  Dodge  Ball,  72. 

Double  Pass,  42. 

Double  Tag,  70. 

Dramatic  .\ge,  26. 

Driving  Pig  to  ^hu•kct,  64. 

Drop  Ball,  (52. 

Dro})  the  Handkerchief,  67. 


INDEX 


113 


Duck  oil  the  Rock,  (51). 
Dumb  IJell  Chase,  (54. 
Dumb  Bell  Race,  53,  58. 
Dumb  Bell  Tag,  69. 

Educational  Plays,  3G. 

Emperor  Ball,  92. 

Enchanted  Ground,  71. 

End  Ball,  92. 

End  to  End  Bean  Bag,  58. 

Engineer,  44. 

English  Church  Pageant,  46. 

English  Games  of  Bat  and  Ball, 

77. 
English  Rugby,  108. 
Every  Man  in  His  Own  Den,  72. 
Evolution  Theory  of  Play,  11. 
Exchange  Tag,  69. 
Expressman,  44. 

Farmer  and  Crow,  44. 
Farmer's  Garden,  44. 
Farmer  Getting  Ready  for  Mar- 
ket, 44. 
Fencing,  109. 
Fetch  and  Carry,  57. 
Field  Events,  48. 
Field  Hockey,  93. 
Fighting  Plays,  34. 
Fireman,  44. 

Fire  on  the  Mountains,  (id. 
First  of  May,  46. 
Fishing,  44. 
Fist  Ball,  83. 
Fives,  85. 
Flag  Race,  58. 
Flowers  and  the  Wind,  71. 
Fly  in,  77. 
Flying  Kites,  44. 
Follow  Chase,  67. 
Football  Games,  99. 
Forcing  the  City  Gates,  109. 
Former  Habits  of  Living,  18. 
Fortress,  109. 
Fourth  of  July,  71. 
Fox  and  Chickens,  68. 
Fox  and  Farmer,  67. 


Fox  and  Geese,  68. 
Fox  and  Gander,  ()8. 
Fox  and  Rabbit,  44. 
Fox  and  Squirrel,  44. 
Freedom,  14. 
Free  Play  in  Cities,  19. 
Fungo,  77. 

Game  of  Tag,  45. 

Games,  Kinds  of,  38. 

Garden  Scamp,  67. 

George      Washington's      Cherry 

Tree,  45. 
German  Ball  Game,  77. 
German  Bat  Ball,  77. 
Girl  I  Left  behind  Me,  47. 
Goal  Games,  63. 
Go  between,  64. 
Going  to  Jerusalem,  65. 
Gossiping  Ella,  47. 
Go-Stop,  65. 

Going  for  Christmas  Trees,  44. 
Grandmother's  Clock,  65. 
Green  Wolf,  65. 
Groos'  Theory  of  Play,  11. 
Gypsy,  45. 

Hall,  G.  Stanley,  on  Play,  11. 

Hand  Ball,  85. 

Hand  Ball  Drill,  42. 

Hand  Football,  92. 

Handkerchief  Tag,  69. 

Hand  Overhead  Bean  Bag,  58, 

Hand  Tennis,  83. 

Hand  Wrestling,  109. 

Hang  Baseball,  77. 

Hang  Tag  (Cats),  69. 

Hare  and  Hounds,  53. 

Hat  Ball,  70. 

Have  You  Seen  My  Sheep,  67. 

Hawk  and  Hen,  68. 

Hill  Dill,  71. 

Highland  Schottische,  47. 

Highland  Fling,  47. 

Hockey  Games,  93. 

Home  Run,  58. 

Hop  Mother  Anika,  47. 


114 


INDEX 


Ho])j)in*^  Has(\s,  109. 

Ho])l)iii,u'  R:ic(\  (57. 

II(>l)|)iim'  Kclny,  .57. 

Hoppers,  10!)." 

Hop  Scotch,  00,  (^-^ 

Il,.isclKick  Wivsllc,  10!). 

Hot   Hall.   H. 

II. .1111(1  and  Ral)l)it,  (iS. 

Ht)iise  Iliriiii;,  04. 

How  Many  Miles  to  Hahyloii,  4.5. 

Hunt  the  Fox,  07. 

Hunstniaii,  04. 

Hiinlle  Races,  49. 

Huidy  (nirdy,  44. 

Ice  Hockey,  90. 

Imitative  Play,  S4. 

Indian  (Mill)  Race,  a'-2,  58. 

Indian  (1nb  Wrestle,  109. 

Indian  Wrestle,  109. 

Indians,  44. 

Individual  Play,  33. 

Individual  Movement  Tlays,  40. 

Indoor  Baseball,  70. 

Infancy,  '■2(). 

Instinct  Tli(>ory  of  Play,  11. 

Irish  Lilt,  47. 

Ironing,  44. 

I  Spy,  65. 

Jack  Be  Nimble,  45. 
Jack  Be  (^iiick,  (').'). 
Jack  Frost,  44. 
Jack  in  the  Box,  45. 
Jack-O-Lantern,  44. 
Jai)anese  Crab  Race,  58. 
Japane.se  Dance,  47. 
Japanese  Tag,  70. 
Jumping  Relay,  57. 
Juinj)s,  4!). 

Jump  tlie  Mean  Bag,  58. 
Jiiini)  the  Shot,  ()^2. 

Kaiiuaroo,  ()5. 
Keep  iiall,  ih2. 
Kick  Ball,  108. 
Kick-over  Ball,  108. 


Kicking  Bast-ball,  77. 
Kindergarten,  "-20. 
Kinds  of  Play,  .3^2. 
King's  Land,  70. 
Khorovad,  47. 
Klondike,  70. 
Komarno,  47. 
Krako\ieiiiie,  47. 

Lacrosse,  9(). 

Lady  of  the  Land,  45. 

Last     Couple     Out     (Last      Pair 

Pass),  70. 
La.st  Man,  68. 
Last  One  Out,  05. 
Lawn  Bowls,  6*2. 
Lawn  Tennis,  80,  83. 
Lincoln's  Home,  44. 
Line  Ball,  58. 
Line  Football,  108. 
Line  Interference,  08. 
Line  Tug,  55. 
Line  Zigzag,  58. 
Long  Ball,  76,  77. 

:\Iail  Man,  (!5. 

Making  Cider,  44. 

Making  Hay,  44. 

Making  Ice  Cream,  45. 

Marching  to  Jerusalem,  (53. 

Master  of  the  Ring,  109. 

Mating  Plays,  35. 

Maturity,  Age  of,  '29. 

May  Queen,  45. 

Maze  Tag,  08. 

Meaning  of  Play.  !). 

Me<licinc  Ball,  5S. 

M(>(liciiie  Ball  Play,  4^2. 

Medicine  Ball   Pursuit   Race,  58. 

Merry  (io  Round.  45. 

Minor  American  Baseball  (ianics, 

7(;. 
Minor  Basketball  (iames,  !)0. 
Minor  Net   (iames  (Tennis),  83. 
Mother  May  I  (Jo  out  to  Play,  45 
Mother,    Mother,    the    Pot    Hoils 

over,  45. 


INDEX 


115 


Movement  Plays,  36. 
My  Lady's  Toilet,  65. 

Name  Ball,  62. 

National  Dances,  47. 

Need  of  Space,  22. 

Net  Games,  80. 

Newsboy,  45. 

Newcomb,  91. 

New  York  Captain  Ball,  92. 

Night  Before  Christmas,  65. 

Nine  Pins,  65. 

Norwegian  Mountain  March,  47. 

Numbers  Change,  65. 

Nutting,  45. 

Object  Passing,  42. 
Obstacle  Race,  53,  58. 
Old  Buzzard,  45. 
On  a  Farm,  45. 
One-legged  Relay,  58. 
One  Old  Cat,  76,  77. 
Over  an  under  Relay,  58. 
Overtake,  58. 
Oxdansen,  47. 

Pallone,  86. 

Partner  Tag,  68. 

Pass  and  Toss  Relay,  58. 

Pass  Bags,  42. 

Pass  Ball,  58. 

Pass  Ball  Relay,  58. 

Passing  Dumbbells,  58. 

Passing  Race,  58. 

Passing  Relay  with  Bean  Bags, 

58. 
Pelota,  86. 

Personal  Combat,  Games  of,  109. 
Peter  Magnus,  47. 
Picking  Flowers,  45. 
Picnic,  45. 
Pilgrims,  45. 
Pin  Football,  108. 
Ping  Pong,  83. 

Play  among  Educated  People,  24. 
Play  and  Work,  9. 
Play  Classified,  33. 
Play  Impulse,  10. 


Plav  in  Education,  16. 

Plav  Problem,  18. 

Play  Relative  to  Others,  33. 

Playing  (iolf,  45. 

Playing  Horse,  45. 

Playing  in  Snow,  45. 

Poison  Snake,  109. 

Policeman  at  Street  Crossing,  45. 

Polo,  98. 

Pop  Goes  the  Weasel,  47. 

Preface,  7. 

Preliminary  Ball,  42. 

Potato  Race,  53,  58. 

Potato  Shuttle  Relay,  58. 

Prison  Base,  71,  72. 

Presto  Change,  65. 

Progressive  Captain  Ball,  92. 

Progressive  Dodge  Ball,  72. 

Pull  Away,  70. 

Puss  in  a  Circle,  71. 

Puss  in  the  Corner,  64,  65. 

Putting  in  Coal,  45. 

Queen  and  Attendants,  68. 
Quoits,  62. 

Rabbit's  Nest,  68. 
Rabbit  Race,  53. 
Race,  Placing  Objects,  53. 
Racquets,  84. 
Railroad  Train,  45. 
Reach  Pass  Ball,  58. 
Reap  the  Flax,  47. 
Recreation  Centers,  23. 
Red  Lion,  71. 

Reforming  Play  Habits,  23. 
Relays,  38. 
Relay  Contests,  57. 
Relievo,  65,  71. 
Remuneration,  15. 
Rhythm  Plays,  37. 
Ribbon's  End,  68. 
Riding  Bicycle,  45. 
Ring  Call  Ball,  62. 
Ring  Master,  45. 
Ritsch  Ratsch,  47. 
Rivalry  Plays,  37. 


110  INDEX 

R()))l)('rs  and  S()l(li(>rs.  KM).  Snatch  llio  Tlaiidkcrcliict',  .).5. 

Roll  Hall,  ().).  Snow  Fort,  4.5. 

Roller  Polo,  !)S.  Snow   Man,  ^.3. 

Rolling-  Tarj>et,  .5S.  Snow  Play,  i.j. 

Rorenacka,  47.  Social  Plays,  :}4. 

Ro.se  Dance,  47.  Soldiers,  4.). 

Rotation,  7(5.  Sparrow  Fi.ulil.  10!). 

Ronnd  Hall,  .5S.  Spin  the  Platter.  (r2. 

R()U<;h  Riders,  4.5.  '  Sprints,  4!). 

Round     and     Ronnd     Went     the      Si)ud.  70. 

(laliant  Ship,  4.5.  S(piare  liall,  71. 

Rnhher  Hall  Contests,  ;>S.  Sipiash,  S.5. 

Rnhher  Hall  Race,  o,'}.  S(piash  Tennis.  S.5. 

Ruo-hy  Football  Games,  101.  Stpiat  Tag,  (iJ). 

Run,  Sheep,  Run,  (5.5.  Sijuirrels  in  Trees,  (i.5. 

Russian  Hole  Hall,  .5.'}.  Stage  Coach,  (5.5. 

Stand  Hall,  (5!). 

Sailor's  Hornpipe,  47.  Stealing  Sticks,  71. 

Save  Yourselves,  0.5.  Stilts,  4'-2. 

Scat,  0!).  Stone,  71. 
Schiller-Sp(>ncer  Theory  of  l*lay.      Story  Plays,  'M,  44. 

10.  Straddle  Pin,  0.5. 

School  Hall,  4-2,  (5^>.  Straddle  Hall,  .5S,  04. 

School  Room  Tag,  07.  Stroke,  (5.5. 

Scouts,  7'-2.  Supervised  Play,  '20. 

Scramble,  (5.5.  Swat  Hall,  10!). 

Scrimmage  Hall,  108.  Swedish  Claj)  Dance,  47. 

Sculptor,  45.  Sw(>dish  Fox  and  (Jeese,  08. 

See  Saw,  45.  Swedish  Long  Dance,  47. 

Self  As.sertion,  Age  of,  27.  Swimming,  42,  4.5. 
Shadow  Tag,  70. 

Sheepfold,  08.  Tag  Hall,  05). 

Shuttle  Relays,  57.  Tag  and  Flag,  7^2. 

Siege,  10!).  Tag  (iames,  (57. 

Simi)le  Contests,  .'58.  Tag  the  Wall  Relay,  57. 

Single  Relay,  57.  Tarantella,  47. 

Sitting  Down  Circli-  Hall.  0!).  Teacher  and  Class,  0'-2. 

Sitting  Tag,  0!).  Team  (iames  of  Tag,  71. 

Skaters,  45.  Telegram,  58. 

Skating,  4'2.  'I'eimis  (iames,  80. 

Skeeiug,  4-2.  Ten  Trips,  58. 

Skip  Away,  (55.  Thanksgiving  Pies,  45. 

Skittles,  .5;5.  Third  Man,  (58. 

Slap  Jack,  05.  Thre(>  Deep,  08. 

Snake's  Tail.  (58.  Throwing  Weights,  50. 

Snake  Tag,  (58.  Time  Hall,  58. 

Snatch  the  Heau  Hag,  :>:>,  71.  Token  Tag,  (»!). 


INDEX 


117 


Tom  the  Piper's  Son,  G,5. 

Tom  Tiddler's  Ground,  70. 

Toss  Ball,  42. 

Tournament,  55. 

Track  Events,  48. 

Track  Meets,  50. 

Trades,  71. 

Tree  Ball,  70. 

Trees  in  a  Storm,  45. 

Trip  to  Belle  Isle,  45. 

Tug  of  War,  55. 

Twelve  O'Clock  at  Night,  00. 

Two  Balls,  58. 

Two  Old  Cat,  78. 

Valentine's  Day,  45. 

Varsovienne,  47. 
Vaulting  Relay,  58. 
Volley  Ball,  83. 

Walk  in  the  Orchard,  45. 
Wall  Games  (Tennis),  84. 
Wall  Kick  Ball,  92. 


Wand  Race,  53. 
Wand  Tug  of  War,  55. 
Wand  Wrestling,  109. 
War,  109. 
Washing,  45. 
Washing  the  Clothes,  47. 
Water  Tug  of  War,  55. 
Weathercock,  45. 
Weaving  Dance,  47. 
Whv  Teach  Plav,  18. 
Whip  Tag,  65. 
Wind  Storm,  45. 
Wolf,  66,  71. 
Wood  Tag,  69. 
Work,  14. 
Wrestling,  109. 
Wrestling  Circle,  109. 

Ypsilanti  Group  Contests,  56. 

Zigzag  Ball,  58. 
Zigzag  Games,  58. 
Zigzag  Overhead  Toss,  58. 


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